Friday, July 18, 2014
THE IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING CIVICS.
WHY STUDY CIVICS ?
- civics--the study of civic affairs and the duties and rights of citizenship
- civic--of a city, citizens, or citizenship
- "the study of civic affairs. . . "--By studying civics, you will learn how our government, economic system and political system are supposed to operate. You will, for example, be better able to determine who is right in controversies over "big, active government" vs. "small, limited government". You'll understand why the founding fathers wanted the colonies to break away from the British crown, and why they set up the United States government as a republic instead of as a democracy. Things like the power shortage mess in California won't be near as mystifying to you, because you'll be able to understand just what went wrong. Debates over whether or not to raise the minimum wage, or whether or not to cut income tax rates will make more sense to you. And, if another fiasco like the presidential election of 2000 comes up, you'll be able to understand the issues.
- ". . . the duties and rights of citizenship"--Most citizens of the
United States are at least vaguely aware that they have certain rights. But,
there is a certain amount of confusion over what those rights are. Take, for
example, the
First Amendment rights of free speech. In modern times, this amendment has been
interpreted to also mean "free expression".
So, when Congress tries to pass a law against burning the United States flag,
the courts say, "No, you can't do that. You'll
be violating the people's right to 'free expression'". There have also been
cases where someone will want to set up a strip bar somewhere. But, the local
government will say, "Wait a minute. A lot of people here would rather not have
that type of
business in our neighborhood." The prospective strip bar owner will reply, "Ah,
but you have to let us in. If you don't allow young ladies to come to my bar
and dance nude before a crowd of men, you'll be violating their First Amendment
right
of free expression." Of course, others will argue that the First Amendment
was never meant to protect these kinds of activities, but was meant instead to
protect a person who feels the need to criticize members of government. By studying
civics, you'll be better able to determine who's right in these sorts of arguments.
By the same token, it's also good to know just what your rights are as a U. S. citizen. Suppose, for example, that a pair of city or county social workers were to come to your door, and tell you that they'd heard reports that you and your spouse have been abusing your children. They don't have a search warrant, but they demand that you let them in so that they can undress your children and examine them for bruises. You are, of course, innocent; you have nothing to hide. So, you let them in because you believe that you would be disobeying the law to act otherwise. But, do you have to? This scenario does play itself out in these United States. But, by studying civics, you'll be better able to deal with this sort of situation should it arise.
Notice, though, that there are also duties of citizenship. That doesn't mean that you have to exert yourself to become a great political leader, although you can if you want. But, if you're familiar with the basic principles of civics, you'll be a better informed voter. You'll be able to examine politicians' positions, and determine whether or not they'll be good for the country, or for the cause of liberty. You'll be able to determine if the candidates' positions are in line with the Constitution. As a result, you'll not only be helping to protect your own freedom, but also that of your fellow citizens.
DEFINITION OF CIVICS AND WHY STUDY CIVICS ?
Civics is the study of rights and duties of citizenship. In other words,
it is the study of government with attention to the role of citizens as
opposed to external factors in the operation and oversight of
government.
The study of civics is important because it helps people to
understand how government works, and it provides people with knowledge
about how to influence government as a citizen. Generally speaking, civics is the study of what it means to be a citizen in a particular nation.
The framers of the U.S. Constitution had several concepts in mind: They did not want to establish a king, they wanted to diversify the decision-making process in the creation of laws, and they wanted to establish a system in which ordinary citizens have a significant voice. For this reason, they created a tripartite government in which no aspect of government has sole authority over laws and legality. For example, while Congress passes laws, the president has to sign them (for the most part), and the judicial system provides recourse when the laws are unfair. In order for this system to operate, people need to know about how it is supposed to work so that politicians and judges can operate properly and also so that citizens can challenge leaders when the leaders are in the wrong. Further, civics instruction can provide students with opportunities to consider local and national issues and learn about what citizens can do to create change where problems exist. For example, a large portion of the civil rights movement involved the use of the courts rather than a revolution to strike down laws pertaining to the segregation of schools. Civics, then, helps people to understand and to influence the legal context in which they find themselves; this is why it is a critical subject to study.
Why is civics important?
The framers of the U.S. Constitution had several concepts in mind: They did not want to establish a king, they wanted to diversify the decision-making process in the creation of laws, and they wanted to establish a system in which ordinary citizens have a significant voice. For this reason, they created a tripartite government in which no aspect of government has sole authority over laws and legality. For example, while Congress passes laws, the president has to sign them (for the most part), and the judicial system provides recourse when the laws are unfair. In order for this system to operate, people need to know about how it is supposed to work so that politicians and judges can operate properly and also so that citizens can challenge leaders when the leaders are in the wrong. Further, civics instruction can provide students with opportunities to consider local and national issues and learn about what citizens can do to create change where problems exist. For example, a large portion of the civil rights movement involved the use of the courts rather than a revolution to strike down laws pertaining to the segregation of schools. Civics, then, helps people to understand and to influence the legal context in which they find themselves; this is why it is a critical subject to study.
WHAT IS CIVICS ?
WHAT IS CIVICS ?
INTRODUCTION:
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Within a given political or ethical tradition, civics refers to educating the citizens. The history of civics dates back to the earliest theories of civics by Confucius in ancient China and Plato in ancient Greece. In China also along with Confucianism developed the tradition of Legalism. These traditions in the East and in the West developed to an extent differently, therefore, with bringing in the past different concepts of citizens rights and the application of justice, together with different ethics in public life. This was mainly valid before the translation of the Western legal tradition to Chinese which started in 1839 after which influence by Western tradition was brought to China, with periods of restoration of traditional Chinese law, influence by Soviet law; specific is the common ordinary language used in Chinese laws which has significant educational role.
Contents
Examples of civic activity
See also: Civic engagement
Voting
Voting is an important component of civics. Voting involves studying candidates on the ballot to understand each candidate's position and qualification. Voting also includes understanding the propositions that are on the ballot. Voting directly affects how government functions by selecting the candidate to work in the government.Jury duty
Jury duty is a responsibility of a citizen to participate in the legal process.Townhall meeting
The Townhall meeting is another example of civics. Townhall meetings allow government representatives and members of civil society in specific voting districts meet face to face to review issues and show support or opposition to initiatives. Meetings are publicly announced and attendance is open unless otherwise stipulated.Government
Of special concern are the choice of a form of government and (if this is any form of democracy) the design of an electoral system and ongoing electoral reform. This involves explicitly comparing voting systems, wealth distribution and the decentralization of political and legal power, control of legal systems and adoption of legal codes, and even political privacy — all seen as important to avoid social (civil) dystrophy[2] or a lapse into some undesirable state of totalitarianism or theocracy. Each of these concerns tends to make the process of governance different, as variations in these norms tend to produce a quite different kind of state. Civics was often simply concerned with the balance of power between say an aristocracy and monarchy—a concern echoed to this day in the struggles for power between different levels of rulers—say of the weaker nation-states to establish a binding international law that will have an effect even on the stronger ones. Thus world government is itself properly a civic problem. Also, it is the study of duties and rights of citizenship.On smaller scales, modern human development theory attempts to unify ethics and small-scale politics with the urban and rural economies of sustainable development. Notable theorists including Jane Jacobs and Carol Moore argue that political secession of either cities or distinct bio regions and cultures is an essential pre-requisite to applying any widely shared ethics, as the ethical views of urban and rural people, different cultures or those engaged in different types of agriculture, are irreconcilably different. This extreme advocacy of decentralization is hardly uncommon, and leads to the minimal theory of civics – anarchism.
Civics refers not to the ethical or moral or political basis by which a ruler acquires power, but only to the processes and procedures they follow in actually exercising it.
Recently, the concept of global civics has also been suggested as a way of applying civics in the highly interdependent and globalized world of the 21st century. Many people feel that increasing knowledge and awareness of individual citizen's rights can enhance global political and economic understanding. Nations such as the United States have been criticized for minimizing public civics education opportunities in the past several years.
Examples of different types
Most civic theories are more trusting of public institutions, and can be characterizing on a scale from least (mob rule) to most (the totalitarian) degree of trust placed in the government. At the risk of extreme oversimplification, an historical view of civic theory in action suggests that the theories be ranked as follows:| Philosophy | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Ochlocracy (aka: Mob Rule) | Trusting of the instincts and power of large groups—no consistent civics at all.[3] | Lynching |
| Anarchism | No government or other hierarchy, a common ethical code enforced only by personal governance (self-rule) and voluntary association.[4] | Anarchist Catalonia |
| Minarchy | A minimal hierarchy—e.g. sometimes said to include Eco-anarchism | |
| Libertarianism | A philosophy based on the premise that all individuals are sovereign over their own lives and that personal and economic freedom should be maximized as much as possible without Government intervening in personal and business matters. The purpose of Government would only exist to protect and defend the freedom of the people. Another term would be Constitutionalism set forth by The United States Constitution and the United States Bill of Rights. The people would live through Voluntary association through the Free market, This is commonly known as Limited government. Not to be confused with Anarchism. | as advocated by Murray Rothbard, Friedrich Hayek, Ludwig von Mises, and Ron Paul, |
| Direct democracy | Decisions made directly by the people without guidance or moral suasion, usually relying on multiple choices laid out by experts | as advocated by Ross Perot |
| Deliberative democracy | Decisions made by locally grouped citizens obligated to participate in consensus decision making process | as advocated by Ralph Nader |
| Representative democracy | A political class of elected representatives is trusted to carry out duties for the electors – these may be responsible to any group in society, or none, once elected | United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, USA, France, Germany, India |
| Technocracy | Reliance on castes of bureaucrats and scientists to rule society, and define risk for the whole society – sometimes generalized into anticipatory democracy. Can be interpreted as leading to or including kleptocracy | China |
| Aristocracy | General trust in one class in society to rule and protect, e.g. members of particular noble families that have worked for and/or defended the community across many generations (i.e. "old" money), upholding traditions, standards of living, art, culture, commerce, and defense. Not to be confused with plutocracy, where rule is based solely on financial wealth. | Ancient Greek city-states were by 700s B.C., generally ruled by an aristocracy. The Roman aristocratic class spearheaded the Roman Republic. The aristocratic families of Republic of Venice and Republic of Genoa held sway during most of the history of the mentioned Italian city-states. See also Patrician (post-Roman Europe), Republic of Ragusa. |
| Theocracy | Government led by religious beliefs or culture. Theocracies are led by powerful religious figures and follow rules based on religious documents. | Vatican City, Islamic Republic of Iran |
| Constitutional monarchy | A monarch, possibly purely symbolic and devoted to moral example, avoiding vesting such popularity in any less trustworthy political figure—typically tied to at least some deliberative institutions, and making the monarch a tiebreaker or mediator or coach | United Kingdom, Spain, Japan, Thailand, Canada, and the Netherlands |
| Absolute monarchy | A monarchy who carries absolute power, with no requirement to answer to the legislature, judiciary, or the citizenry. Rule is generally hereditary. | Saudi Arabia, Brunei, Oman |
| Dictatorship | A political or military ruler who has the powers of the monarch(people), but whose basis for rule is not hereditary, but based upon military or political power. | Benito Mussolini, Napoleon Bonaparte, Adolf Hitler, Julius Caesar, Francisco Franco, Joseph Stalin, Fidel Castro, Seyed Ali Khamenei, Ferdinand Marcos |
| Note: examples are included only to help familiarize readers with the basic idea of the scale—they are not intended to be conclusive or to categorize these individuals other than the civics that they exercise or exemplify. | ||
Criticism of civic education
Sudbury schools contend that values, social justice and democracy must be learned through experience[5][6][7][8] as Aristotle said: "For the things we have to learn before we can do them, we learn by doing them."[9] They adduce that for this purpose schools must encourage ethical behavior and personal responsibility. In order to achieve these goals schools must allow students the three great freedoms—freedom of choice, freedom of action and freedom to bear the results of action—that constitute personal responsibility.[10] The "strongest, political rationale" for democratic schools is that they teach "the virtues of democratic deliberation for the sake of future citizenship."[11] This type of education is often alluded to in the deliberative democracy literature as fulfilling the necessary and fundamental social and institutional changes necessary to develop a democracy that involves intensive participation in group decision making, negotiation, and social life of consequence.See also
- History of citizenship
- Index of civics articles
- Community
- Global civics
- Law
- Law and order
- Legal awareness
- Voting
- Participation (decision making)
- Public space
References
- Frederick Converse Beach, George Edwin Rines, The Americana: a universal reference library, comprising the arts and sciences, literature, history, biography, geography, commerce, etc., of the world, Volume 5, Scientific American compiling department, 1912, p.1
- "The Russian Paradigm of Lacking Freedoms in the Context of the Global “Inversion” of Human Rights" (PDF). Retrieved 2013-08-03.
- "theocracy" Online Entomology Dictionary. 2001. Online Entomology Dictionary.
- "Anarchy" Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online.
- Greenberg, D. (1992), Education in America - A View from Sudbury Valley, "'Ethics' is a Course Taught By Life Experience." Retrieved June 25, 2010.
- Greenberg, D. (1987), The Sudbury Valley School Experience, "Teaching Justice Through Experience." Retrieved June 25, 2010.
- Greenberg, D. (1992), Education in America - A View from Sudbury Valley, "Democracy Must be Experienced to be Learned." Retrieved June 25, 2010.
- Greenberg, D. (1987) Chapter 35, "With Liberty and Justice for All," Free at Last — The Sudbury Valley School. Retrieved June 25, 2010.
- Bynum, W.F. and Porter, R. (eds) (2005) Oxford Dictionary of Scientific Quotations. Oxford University Press. 21:9.
- Greenberg, D. (1987) The Sudbury Valley School Experience "Back to Basics - Moral basics." Retrieved June 25, 2010.
- Curren, R. (2007) Philosophy of Education: An Anthology. Blackwell Publishing. p 163.
External links
 |
Look up civics in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
- Annenberg Classroom The civics education site of the Annenberg Public Policy Center
- Civic Action Project A practicum for high school students in civics and government.
- iCivics Justice Sandra Day O'Connor's education site
- Center for Civic Education Promoting the Principles and Practice of Democracy
- CIVNET.org – in their own words, "a worldwide online civic education community of civic educators, scholars, policymakers, civic-minded journalists, NGOs, and other individuals promoting civic education"
- Facing History and Ourselves Engaging students of diverse backgrounds in an examination of racism, prejudice, and antisemitism in order to promote the development of a more humane and informed citizenry
- From fallacious politics to sound civics An essay on discovering civics beyond politics.
- Word List: Types of Government A Thinking Place
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GOVERNMENT
GOVERNMENT
For government in linguistics, see Government (linguistics).
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In the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists of legislators, administrators, and arbitrators. Government is the means by which state policy is enforced, as well as the mechanism for determining the policy of the state. A form of government, or form of state governance, refers to the set of political systems and institutions that make up the organisation of a specific government.
Government of any kind currently affects every human activity in many important ways. For this reason, political scientists generally argue that government should not be studied by itself; but should be studied along with anthropology, economics, history, philosophy, science, and sociology.
Contents
- 1 Political science
- 2 Forms of government by associated attributes
- 3 Forms of government by other characteristic attributes
- 4 Maps
- 5 References
- 6 Bibliography
- 7 Further reading
- 8 External links
Political science
Etymology
From Middle English government,[citation needed] from Old French government[citation needed] (French gouvernement), from Latin gubernatio ("management, government"). Government is a compound formed from the Ancient Greek κυβερνάω (kubernaō, "I steer, drive, guide, pilot") and the Latin -mente, ablative singular of mēns (“mind”).- arch-, prefix derived from the Greek archon, 'rulership', which means "higher in hierarchy".[4] The Greek word κράτος krátos, 'power', which means "right to lead" is the suffix root in words like aristocrat and democracy. Its mythological personification was the god Kratos, a son of Styx.
Classifying government
In political science, it has long been a goal to create a typology or taxonomy of polities, as typologies of political systems are not obvious.[5] It is especially important in the political science fields of comparative politics and international relations.On the surface, identifying a form of government appears to be easy, as all governments have an official form. The United States is a federal republic, while the former Soviet Union was a socialist republic. However self-identification is not objective, and as Kopstein and Lichbach argue, defining regimes can be tricky.[6] For example, elections are a defining characteristic of a democracy,[citation needed] but in practice elections in the former Soviet Union were not "free and fair" and took place in a single party state. Thus in many practical classifications it would not be considered democratic.
Identifying a form of government is also complicated because a large number of political systems originate as socio-economic movements and are then carried into governments by specific parties naming themselves after those movements; all with competing political-ideologies. Experience with those movements in power, and the strong ties they may have to particular forms of government, can cause them to be considered as forms of government in themselves.
Other complications include general non-consensus or deliberate "distortion or bias" of reasonable technical definitions to political ideologies and associated forms of governing, due to the nature of politics in the modern era. For example: The meaning of "conservatism" in the United States has little in common with the way the word's definition is used elsewhere. As Ribuffo (2011) notes, "what Americans now call conservatism much of the world calls liberalism or neoliberalism".[7] Since the 1950s conservatism in the United States has been chiefly associated with the Republican Party. However, during the era of segregation many Southern Democrats were conservatives, and they played a key role in the Conservative Coalition that controlled Congress from 1937 to 1963.[8]
Every country in the world is ruled by a system of governance that combines at least 2 (or more) of the following attributes (for example, the United States is not a true capitalist society, since the government actually provides social services for its citizens). Additionally, one person's opinion of the type of government may differ from another's (for example, some may argue that the United States is a plutocracy rather than a democracy since they may believe it is ruled by the wealthy).[9] There are always shades of gray in any government. Even the most liberal democracies limit rival political activity to one extent or another, and even the most tyrannical dictatorships must organise a broad base of support, so it is very difficult "pigeonholing" every government into narrow categories.[clarification needed]
The dialectical forms of government
Main article: Plato's five regimes
The Classical Greek philosopher Plato discusses five types of regimes. They are aristocracy, timocracy, oligarchy, democracy and tyranny.
Plato also assigns a man to each of these regimes to illustrate what
they stand for. The tyrannical man would represent tyranny for example.
These five regimes progressively degenerate starting with aristocracy at
the top and tyranny at the bottom.In Republic, while Plato spends much time having Socrates narrate a conversation about the city he founds with Glaucon and Adeimantus "in speech", the discussion eventually turns to considering four regimes that exist in reality and tend to degrade successively into each other: timocracy, oligarchy (also called plutocracy), democracy and tyranny (also called despotism).
Forms of government by associated attributes
Descriptions of governments can be based on the following attributes:By elements of where decision-making power is held
Aristarchic attributes
Governments with aristarchy attributes are traditionally controlled and organised by a small group of the most-qualified people, with no intervention from the most part of society; this small group usually shares some common trait. The opposite of an aristarchic government is kakistocracy.| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Aristocracy | Rule by elite citizens. It has come to mean rule by "the aristocracy" who are people of noble birth. An aristocracy is a government by the "best" people. A person who rules in an aristocracy is an aristocrat. Aristocracy is different from nobility, in that nobility means that one bloodline would rule; an aristocracy would mean that a few or many bloodlines would rule, or that rulers be chosen in a different manner. |
| Geniocracy | Rule by the intelligent; a system of governance where creativity, innovation, intelligence and wisdom are required for those who wish to govern. See Aristocracy of the wise. |
| Kratocracy | Rule by the strong; a system of governance where those who are strong enough seize power through physical force, social maneuvering or political cunning. The process can mimic Darwinian selection. |
| Meritocracy | Rule by the meritorious; a system of governance where groups are selected on the basis of people's ability, knowledge in a given area, and contributions to society. |
| Timocracy | Rule by honour; a system of governance ruled by honorable citizens and property owners. Socrates defines a timocracy as a government ruled by people who love honour and are selected according to the degree of honour they hold in society. This form of timocracy is very similar to meritocracy, in the sense that individuals of outstanding character or faculty are placed in the seat of power. European feudalism and post-Revolutionary America are historical examples of this type; the city-state of Sparta provided another real-world model for this form of government. |
| Technocracy | Rule by the educated or technical experts; a system of governance where people who are skilled or proficient govern in their respective areas of expertise in technology would be in control of all decision making. Doctors, engineers, scientists, professionals and technologists who have knowledge, expertise, or skills, would compose the governing body, instead of politicians, businessmen, and economists.[10] In a technocracy, decision makers would be selected based upon how knowledgeable and skillful they are in their field. |
Autocratic attributes
Governments with autocratic attributes are dominated by one person who has all the power over the people in a country. The Roman Republic made dictators to lead during times of war; the Roman dictators only held power for a small time. In modern times, an autocrat's rule is not stopped by any rules of law, constitutions, or other social and political institutions. After World War II, many governments in Latin America, Asia, and Africa were ruled by autocratic governments. Examples of autocrats include Idi Amin, Muammar Gaddafi, Adolf Hitler and Gamal Abdul Nasser.| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Autocracy | Rule by one individual, whose decisions are subject to neither external legal restraints nor regular mechanisms of popular control (except perhaps for implicit threat). An autocrat needs servants while a despot needs slaves. |
| Despotism | Rule by a single entity with absolute power. That entity may be an individual, as in an autocracy, or it may be a group, as in an oligarchy. The word despotism means to "rule in the fashion of a despot" and does not necessarily require a single, or individual, "despot". A despot needs slaves while an autocrat needs servants. |
| Dictatorship | Rule by an individual who has full power over the country. The term may refer to a system where the dictator came to power, and holds it, purely by force; but it also includes systems where the dictator first came to power legitimately but then was able to amend the constitution so as to, in effect, gather all power for themselves.[11] In a military dictatorship, the army is in control. Usually, there is little or no attention to public opinion or individual rights. See also Autocracy and Stratocracy. |
| Fascism | Rule by leader base only. Focuses heavily on patriotism and national identity. The leader(s) has the power to make things illegal that do not relate to nationalism, or increase belief in national pride. They believe their nation is based on commitment to an organic national community where its citizens are united together as one people through a national identity. It exalts nation and race above the individual and stands for severe economic and social regimentation, and forcible suppression of opposition. |
Monarchic attributes
Governments with monarchic attributes are ruled by a king/emperor or a queen/empress who usually holds their position for life. There are two types of monarchies: absolute monarchies and constitutional monarchies. In an absolute monarchy, the ruler has no limits on their wishes or powers. In a constitutional monarchy a ruler's powers are limited by a document called a constitution. The constitution was put in place to put a check to these powers.| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Absolute monarchy | Variant of monarchy; a system of governance in which a monarch exercises ultimate governing authority as head of state and head of government. |
| Constitutional monarchy | Variant of monarchy; a system of governance that has a monarch, but one whose powers are limited by law or by a formal constitution, such as that in the United Kingdom.[12][13] |
| Diarchy | Variant of monarchy; a system of government in which two individuals, the diarchs, are the heads of state. In most diarchies, the diarchs hold their position for life and pass the responsibilities and power of the position to their children or family when they die. Diarchy is one of the oldest forms of government. In modern usage diarchy means a system of dual rule, whether this be of a government or of an organisation. Such 'diarchies' are not hereditary. |
| Elective monarchy | Variant of monarchy; a system of governance that has an elected monarch, in contrast to a hereditary monarchy in which the office is automatically passed down as a family inheritance. The democratic manner of election, the nature of candidate qualifications, and the electors vary from case to case. |
| Emirate | Similar to a monarchy or sultanate; a system of governance in which the supreme power is in the hands of an emir (the ruler of a Muslim state); the emir may be an absolute overlord or a sovereign with constitutionally limited authority.[14] |
| Federal monarchy | Variant of monarchy; a system of governance where a federation of states with a single monarch as overall head of the federation, but retaining different monarchs, or a non-monarchical system of government, in the various states joined to the federation. |
| Monarchy | Rule by royalty; a system of governance where an individual who has inherited the role and expects to bequeath it to their heir.[15] |
Pejorative attributes
Regardless of the form of government, the actual governance may be influenced by sectors with political power which are not part of the formal government. Certain actions of the governors, such as corruption, demagoguery, or fear mongering, may disrupt the intended way of working of the government if they are widespread enough.| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Bankocracy | Rule by banks;[16] a system of governance with excessive power or influence of banks and other financial authorities on public policy-making. It can also refer to a form of government where financial institutions rule society. |
| Corporatocracy | Rule by corporations; a system of governance where an economic and political system is controlled by corporations or corporate interests.[17] Its use is generally pejorative. Examples include company rule in India and business voters for the City of London Corporation. |
| Nepotocracy | Rule by nephews; favouritism granted to relatives regardless of merit; a system of governance in which importance is given to the relatives of those already in power, like a nephew (where the word comes from). In such governments even if the relatives aren't qualified they are given positions of authority just because they know someone who already has authority. Pope Alexander VI (Borgia) was accused of this. |
| Kakistocracy | Rule by the stupid; a system of governance where the worst or least-qualified citizens govern or dictate policies. Due to human nature being inherently flawed, it has been suggested that every government which has ever existed has been a prime example of kakistocracy. See Idiocracy. |
| Kleptocracy (Mafia state) | Rule by thieves; a system of governance where its officials and the ruling class in general pursue personal wealth and political power at the expense of the wider population. In strict terms kleptocracy is not a form of government but a characteristic of a government engaged in such behavior. Examples include Mexico as being considered a narcokleptocracy, since its democratic government is perceived to be corrupted by those who profit from trade in illegal drugs smuggled into the United States. |
| Ochlocracy | Rule by the general populace; a system of governance where mob rule is government by mob or a mass of people, or the intimidation of legitimate authorities. As a pejorative for majoritarianism, it is akin to the Latin phrase mobile vulgus meaning "the fickle crowd", from which the English term "mob" was originally derived in the 1680s. Ochlocratic governments are often a democracy spoiled by demagoguery, "tyranny of the majority" and the rule of passion over reason; such governments can be as oppressive as autocratic tyrants. Ochlocracy is synonymous in meaning and usage to the modern, informal term "mobocracy." |
By elements of who elects the empowered
Authoritarian attributes
![[icon]](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small} |
This section requires expansion. (December 2012) |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Authoritarian | Rule by authoritarian governments is identified in societies where a specific set of people possess the authority of the state in a republic or union. It is a political system controlled by unelected rulers who usually permit some degree of individual freedom. |
| Totalitarian | Rule by a totalitarian government is characterised by a highly centralised and coercive authority that regulates nearly every aspect of public and private life. |
Democratic attributes
Further information: Outline of democracy
Governments with democratic attributes are most common in the
Western world and in some countries of the east that have been
influenced by western society, often by being colonised by western
powers over the course of history. In democracies, large proportions of
the population may vote, either to make decisions or to choose
representatives to make decisions. Commonly significant in democracies
are political parties, which are groups of people with similar ideas
about how a country or region should be governed. Different political
parties have different ideas about how the government should handle
different problems.| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Demarchy | Variant of democracy; government in which the state is governed by randomly selected decision makers who have been selected by sortition
(lot) from a broadly inclusive pool of eligible citizens. These groups,
sometimes termed "policy juries", "citizens' juries", or "consensus
conferences", deliberately make decisions about public policies in much
the same way that juries decide criminal cases.
Demarchy, in theory, could overcome some of the functional problems of conventional representative democracy, which is widely subject to manipulation by special interests
and a division between professional policymakers (politicians and
lobbyists) vs. a largely passive, uninvolved and often uninformed
electorate. According to Australian philosopher John Burnheim,
random selection of policymakers would make it easier for everyday
citizens to meaningfully participate, and harder for special interests
to corrupt the process. More generally, random selection of decision makers from a larger group is known as sortition (from the Latin base for lottery). The Athenian democracy made much use of sortition, with nearly all government offices filled by lottery (of full citizens) rather than by election. Candidates were almost always male, Greek, educated citizens holding a minimum of wealth and status. |
| Democracy | Rule by a government chosen by election where most of the populace are enfranchised. The key distinction between a democracy and other forms of constitutional government is usually taken to be that the right to vote is not limited by a person's wealth or race (the main qualification for enfranchisement is usually having reached a certain age). A democratic government is, therefore, one supported (at least at the time of the election) by a majority of the populace (provided the election was held fairly). A "majority" may be defined in different ways. There are many "power-sharing" (usually in countries where people mainly identify themselves by race or religion) or "electoral-college" or "constituency" systems where the government is not chosen by a simple one-vote-per-person headcount. |
| Direct democracy | Variant of democracy; government in which the people represent themselves and vote directly for new laws and public policy |
| Liberal democracy | Variant of democracy; a form of government in which representative democracy operates under the principles of liberalism. It is characterised by fair, free, and competitive elections between multiple distinct political parties, a separation of powers into different branches of government, the rule of law in everyday life as part of an open society, and the protection of human rights and civil liberties for all persons. To define the system in practice, liberal democracies often draw upon a constitution, either formally written or uncodified, to delineate the powers of government and enshrine the social contract. After a period of sustained expansion throughout the 20th century, liberal democracy became the predominant political system in the world. A liberal democracy may take various constitutional forms: it may be a constitutional republic, such as France, Germany, India, Ireland, Italy, or the United States; or a constitutional monarchy, such as Japan, Spain, or the United Kingdom. It may have a presidential system (Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, or the United States), a semi-presidential system (France or Taiwan), or a parliamentary system (Australia, Canada, India, New Zealand, Poland, or the United Kingdom). |
| Representative democracy | Variant of democracy; wherein the people or citizens of a country elect representatives to create and implement public policy in place of active participation by the people. |
| Social democracy | Variant of democracy; social democracy rejects the "either/or" phobiocratic/polarisation interpretation of capitalism versus socialism. It claims that fostering a progressive evolution of capitalism will gradually result in the evolution of capitalist economy into socialist economy. Social democracy argues that all citizens should be legally entitled to certain social rights. These are made up of universal access to public services such as: education, health care, workers' compensation, public transportation, and other services including child care and care for the elderly. Social democracy is connected with the trade union labour movement and supports collective bargaining rights for workers. Contemporary social democracy advocates freedom from discrimination based on differences of: ability/disability, age, ethnicity, sex, gender, language, race, religion, sexual orientation, and social class. |
| Totalitarian democracy | Variant of democracy; refers to a system of government in which lawfully elected representatives maintain the integrity of a nation state whose citizens, while granted the right to vote, have little or no participation in the decision-making process of the government. |
Oligarchic attributes
Governments with oligarchic attributes are ruled by a small group of segregated, powerful and/or influential people, who usually share similar interests and/or family relations. These people may spread power and elect candidates equally or not equally. An oligarchy is different from a true democracy because very few people are given the chance to change things. An oligarchy does not have to be hereditary or monarchic. An oligarchy does not have one clear ruler, but several rulers.Some historical examples of oligarchy are the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Some critics of representative democracy think of the United States as an oligarchy. The Athenian democracy used sortition to elect candidates, almost always male, white, Greek, educated citizens holding a minimum of land, wealth and status.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Ergatocracy | Rule by the proletariat, the workers, or the working class. Examples of ergatocracy include communist revolutionaries and rebels which control most of society and create an alternative economy for people and workers. See Dictatorship of the proletariat.[clarification needed] |
| Kritarchy | Rule by judges; a system of governance composed of law enforcement institutions in which the state and the legal systems are traditionally and/or constitutionally the same entity. Kritarchic judges, magistrates and other adjudicators have the legal power to legislate and administrate the enforcement of government laws, in addition to the interposition of laws and the resolution of disputes. (Not to be confused with "judiciary" or "judicial system".) Somalia, ruled by judges with the tradition of xeer,[18] as well as the Islamic Courts Union, is a historical example.[citation needed] |
| Netocracy | Rule by social connections; a term invented by the editorial board of the American technology magazine Wired in the early 1990s. A portmanteau of Internet and aristocracy, netocracy refers to a perceived global upper-class that bases its power on a technological advantage and networking skills, in comparison to what is portrayed as a bourgeoisie of a gradually diminishing importance. The netocracy concept has been compared with Richard Florida's concept of the creative class. Bard and Söderqvist have also defined an under-class in opposition to the netocracy, which they refer to as the consumtariat. |
| Oligarchy | Rule by a system of governance with small group of people who share similar interests or family relations.[19] |
| Plutocracy | Rule by the rich; a system of governance composed of the wealthy class. Any of the forms of government listed here can be plutocracy. For instance, if all of the elected representatives in a republic are wealthy, then it is a republic and a plutocracy.[20] |
| Stratocracy | Rule by military service; a system of governance composed of military government in which the state and the military are traditionally and/or constitutionally the same entity. Citizens with mandatory or voluntary active military service, or who have been honorably discharged, have the right to govern. (Not to be confused with "military junta" or "military dictatorship".) The Spartan city-state is a historical example; its social system and constitution, were completely focused on military training and excellence. Stratocratic ideology often attaches to the honor-oriented timocracy. |
| Theocracy | Rule by a religious elite; a system of governance composed of religious institutions in which the state and the church are traditionally and/or constitutionally the same entity. Citizens who are clergy have the right to govern.[21] The Vatican's (see Pope) and the Tibetan government's (see Dalai Lama) are historically considered theocracies. |
Other attributes
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Anarchy | Anarchy has more than one definition. In the United States,
the term "anarchy" typically is used to refer to a society without a
publicly enforced government or violently enforced political authority.[22][23] When used in this sense, anarchy may[24] or may not[25] be intended to imply political disorder or lawlessness within a society.
Outside of the U.S., and by most individuals that self-identify as
anarchists, it implies a system of governance, mostly theoretical at a
nation state level. There are also other forms of anarchy that attempt
to avoid the use of coercion, violence, force and authority, while still
producing a productive and desirable society.[26][27] |
| Anocracy | An anocracy is a regime type where power is not vested in
public institutions (as in a normal democracy) but spread amongst elite
groups who are constantly competing with each other for power. Examples
of anocracies in Africa include the warlords of Somalia and the shared governments in Kenya and Zimbabwe. Anocracies are situated midway between an autocracy and a democracy.[28]
The Polity IV dataset[clarification needed] recognised anocracy as a category. In that dataset, anocracies are exactly in the middle between autocracies and democracies. Often the word is defined more broadly. For example a 2010 International Alert publication defined anocracies as "countries that are neither autocratic nor democratic, most of which are making the risky transition between autocracy and democracy".[29] Alert noted that the number of anocracies had increased substantially since the end of the Cold War. Anocracy is not surprisingly the least resilient political system to short-term shocks: it creates the promise but not yet the actuality of an inclusive and effective political economy, and threatens members of the established elite; and is therefore very vulnerable to disruption and armed violence. |
| Banana republic | A banana republic is a politically unstable kleptocratic government that economically depends upon the exports of a limited resource (fruits, minerals), and usually features a society composed of stratified social classes, such as a great, impoverished ergatocracy and a ruling plutocracy, composed of the aristocracy of business, politics, and the military.[30] In political science, the term banana republic denotes a country dependent upon limited primary-sector productions, which is ruled by a plutocracy who exploit the national economy by means of a politico-economic oligarchy.[31] In American literature, the term banana republic originally denoted the fictional Republic of Anchuria, a servile dictatorship that abetted, or supported for kickbacks, the exploitation of large-scale plantation agriculture, especially banana cultivation.[31] In U.S. politics, the term banana republic is a pejorative political descriptor coined by the American writer O. Henry in Cabbages and Kings (1904), a book of thematically related short stories derived from his 1896–97 residence in Honduras, where he was hiding from U.S. law for bank embezzlement.[32] |
| Maoism | The theory and practice of Marxism-Leninism developed in China by Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung), which states that a continuous revolution is necessary if the leaders of a communist state are to keep in touch with the people. |
By elements of how power distribution is structured
Republican attributes
A republic is a form of government in which the country is considered a "public matter" (Latin: res publica), not the private concern or property of the rulers, and where offices of states are subsequently directly or indirectly elected or appointed rather than inherited.| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Republic | Rule by a form of government in which the people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the government and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people.[33][34] A common simplified definition of a republic is a government where the head of state is not a monarch.[35][36] Montesquieu included both democracies, where all the people have a share in rule, and aristocracies or oligarchies, where only some of the people rule, as republican forms of government.[37] |
| Constitutional republic | Rule by a government whose powers are limited by law or a formal constitution, and chosen by a vote amongst at least some sections of the populace (Ancient Sparta was in its own terms a republic, though most inhabitants were disenfranchised). Republics that exclude sections of the populace from participation will typically claim to represent all citizens (by defining people without the vote as "non-citizens"). Examples include the United States, South Africa, India, etc. |
| Democratic republic | A republic form of government where the country is considered a "public matter" (Latin: res publica), not a private concern or property of rulers/3rd world, and where offices of states are subsequently, directly or indirectly, elected or appointed – rather than inherited – where all eligible citizens have an equal say in the local and national decisions that affect their lives. |
| Parliamentary republic | A republic, like India, Singapore and Poland, with an elected head of state, but where the head of state and head of government are kept separate with the head of government retaining most executive powers, or a head of state akin to a head of government, elected by a parliament. |
| Federal republic | A federal union of states or provinces with a republican form of government. Examples include Argentina, Austria, Brazil, Germany, India, Russia, and Switzerland. |
| Islamic Republic | Republics governed in accordance with Islamic law. Examples include Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran. |
| Socialist republic | Countries like China and Vietnam are meant to be governed for and by the people, but with no direct elections. The term People's Republic is used to differentiate themselves from the earlier republic of their countries before the people's revolution, like the Republic of China and Republic of Korea. |
Federalism attributes
|
This section requires expansion. (January 2013) |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Federalism | Rule by a form of government in which the people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the government and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people.[33][34] Montesquieu included both democracies, where all the people have a share in rule, and aristocracies or oligarchies, where only some of the people rule, as republican forms of government.[37] |
| Federal monarchy | A federal monarchy is a federation of states with a single monarch as overall head of the federation, but retaining different monarchs, or a non-monarchical system of government, in the various states joined to the federation. |
| Federal republic | A federal union of states or provinces with a republican form of government. Examples include Argentina, Austria, Brazil, Germany, India, Russia, and Switzerland. |
Other power structure attributes
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Adhocracy | Rule by a government based on relatively disorganised principles and institutions as compared to a bureaucracy, its exact opposite. |
| Anarchism | Sometimes said to be non-governance; it is a structure which strives
for non-hierarchical voluntary associations among agents. Anarchy is a
situation where there is no government.
This can happen after a civil war in a country, when a government has
been destroyed and rival groups are fighting to take its place. There
are also people called anarchists. They believe that any government is a
bad thing – this belief is called anarchism. Anarchists think
governments stop people organising their own lives. Instead they think
people would be better off if they ruled their own lives and worked
together to create a society in any form they choose. |
| Band society | Rule by a government based on small (usually family) unit with a semi-informal hierarchy, with strongest (either physical strength or strength of character) as leader. Very much like a pack seen in other animals, such as wolves. |
| Bureaucracy | Rule by a system of governance with many bureaus, administrators, and petty officials |
| Chiefdom (Tribal) | Rule by a government based on small complex society of varying degrees of centralisation that is led by an individual known as a chief. |
| Cybersynacy | Ruled by a data fed group of secluded individuals that regulates aspects of public and private life using data feeds and technology having no interactivity with the citizens but using "facts only" to decide direction. |
| Parliamentary system | A system of democratic government in which the ministers of the executive branch derive their legitimacy from and are accountable to a legislature or parliament; the executive and legislative branches are interconnected. It is a political system in which the supreme power lies in a body of citizens who can elect people to represent them. |
| Presidential system | A system of government where an executive branch is led by a president who serves as both head of state and head of government. In such a system, this branch exists separately from the legislature, to which it is not responsible and which it cannot, in normal circumstances, dismiss. |
| Nomocracy | Rule by a government under the sovereignty of rational laws and civic right as opposed to one under theocratic systems of government. In a nomocracy, ultimate and final authority (sovereignty) exists in the law. |
Forms of government by other characteristic attributes
By socio-economic system attributes
Further information: Economic system
Historically, most political systems originated as socioeconomic ideologies;
experience with those movements in power, and the strong ties they may
have to particular forms of government, can cause them to be considered
as forms of government in themselves.| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Capitalism | In a capitalist or free-market economy, people own their own businesses and property and must buy services for private use. |
| Communism | A form of socialism, a stateless, classless, moneyless society, based on common ownership of industry, |
| Feudalism | A system of land ownership and duties. Under feudalism, all the land in a kingdom was the king's. However, the king would give some of the land to the lords or nobles who fought for him. These presents of land were called manors. Then the nobles gave some of their land to vassals. The vassals then had to do duties for the nobles. The lands of vassals were called fiefs. |
| Socialism | In a socialist society, workers democratically through cooperatives own all industry, public services may be commonly or state owned, such as healthcare and education. |
| Welfare state | Concept of government in which the state plays a key role in the protection and promotion of the economic and social well-being of its citizens. It is based on the principles of equality of opportunity, equitable distribution of wealth, and public responsibility for those unable to avail themselves of the minimal provisions for a good life. |
By significant constitutional attributes
Certain major characteristics are defining of certain types; others are historically associated with certain types of government.- Rule according to higher law (unwritten ethical principles) vs. written constitutionalism
- Separation of church and state vs. state religion
- Civilian control of the military vs. stratocracy
- Totalitarianism/authoritarianism vs. libertarianism
- Majority rule or parliamentary sovereignty vs. constitution or bill of rights with separation of powers and supermajority rules to prevent tyranny of the majority and protect minority rights
- Androcracy (patriarchy) or gynarchy (matriarchy), gender quotas, gender equality provision, or silence on the matter
By approach to regional autonomy
This list focuses on differing approaches that political systems take to the distribution of sovereignty, and the autonomy of regions within the state.- Sovereignty located exclusively at the centre of political jurisdiction.
- Sovereignty located at the centre and in peripheral areas.
- Diverging degrees of sovereignty.
- Asymmetrical federalism
- Federacy
- Associated state
- Protectorate
- Colonial dependency
- Thalassocracy
- League
- Commonwealth
- Decentralisation and devolution (powers redistributed from central to regional or local governments)
Theoretical and speculative attributes
These currently have no citable real-world examples outside of fiction.| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Corporate republic | Theoretical form of government occasionally hypothesised in works of science fiction, though some historical nations such as medieval Florence might be said to have been governed as corporate republics. The colonial megacorporations such as the Dutch East India Company should possibly be considered corporate states, being semi-sovereign with the power to wage war and establish colonies.
While retaining some semblance of republican government, a corporate republic would be run primarily like a business, involving a board of directors and executives. Utilities, including hospitals, schools, the military, and the police force, would be privatised. The social welfare
function carried out by the state is instead carried out by
corporations in the form of benefits to employees. Although corporate
republics do not exist officially in the modern world, they are often
used in works of fiction or political commentary as a warning of the perceived dangers of unbridled capitalism. In such works, they usually arise when a single, vastly powerful corporation deposes a weak government, over time or in a coup d'état. Some political scientists have also considered state socialist nations to be forms of corporate republics, with the state assuming full control of all economic and political life and establishing a monopoly on everything within national boundaries – effectively making the state itself amount to a giant corporation. |
| Magocracy | Rule by a government with the highest and main authority being either a magician, sage, sorcerer, wizard or witch. This is often similar to a theocratic structured regime and is largely portrayed in fiction and fantasy genre categories. |
| Uniocracy | Ruled by a singularity of all human minds connected via some form of technical or non-technical telepathy acting as a form of super computer to make decisions based on shared patterned experiences to deliver fair and accurate decisions to problems as they arrive. Also known as the "Hive Mind" principle, it differs from voting in that each person would make a decision while in the "hive" the synapses of all minds work together following a longer path of memories to make "one" decision. |
Maps
parliamentary republics, an executive presidency elected by and dependent on parliament
parliamentary constitutional monarchies in which the monarch does not personally exercise power
constitutional monarchies in which the monarch personally exercises power, often alongside a weak parliament
states whose constitutions grant only a single party the right to govern
states where constitutional provisions for government have been suspended
 |
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Government |
References
- "government". Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford University Press. November 2010.
- Bealey, Frank, ed. (1999). "government". The Blackwell dictionary of political science: a user's guide to its terms. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 147. ISBN 0631206957.
- "government". Oxford English Dictionary: American English, Oxford University Press. 2012.
- archon. Online Etymology Dictionary. Etymonline.com. Retrieved on 2013-03-15.
- Lewellen, Ted C. Political Anthropology: An Introduction Third Edition. Praeger Publishers; 3rd edition (30 November 2003)
- Comparative politics : interests, identities, and institutions in a changing global order, Jeffrey Kopstein, Mark Lichbach (eds.), 2nd ed, Cambridge University Press, 2005, ISBN 0521708400, p. 4
- Leo P. Ribuffo, "20 Suggestions for Studying the Right now that Studying the Right is Trendy," Historically Speaking Jan 2011 v.12#1 pp 2–6, quote on p. 6
- Kari Frederickson, The Dixiecrat Revolt and the End of the Solid South, 1932–1968, p. 12, "...conservative southern Democrats viewed warily the potential of New Deal programs to threaten the region's economic dependence on cheap labor while stirring the democratic ambitions of the disfranchised and undermining white supremacy.", The University of North Carolina Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0-8078-4910-1
- "Plutocrats – The Rise of the New Global Super-Rich and the Fall of Everyone Else" Chrystia Freeland is Global Editor-at-Large at Reuters news agency, following years of service at the Financial Times both in New York and London. She was the deputy editor of Canada's Globe and Mail and has reported for the Financial Times, Economist, and Washington Post. She lives in New York City.
- Ernst R. Berndt, (1982).“From Technocracy To Net Energy Analysis: Engineers, Economists And Recurring Energy Theories Of Value”, Studies in Energy and the American Economy, Discussion Paper No. 11, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Revised September 1982
- American 503
- Fotopoulos, Takis, The Multidimensional Crisis and Inclusive Democracy. (Athens: Gordios, 2005). (English translation of the book with the same title published in Greek).
- "Victorian Electronic Democracy : Glossary". 28 July 2005. Archived from the original on 13 December 2007.
- Field Listing :: Government type. CIA – The World Factbook. Retrieved on 2013-03-15.
- American 1134
- Waibl, Elmar; Herdina, Philip (1997). Dictionary of Philosophical Terms vol. II – English-German / Englisch-Deutsch. Walter de Gruyter. p. 33. ISBN 3110979497. Retrieved September 18, 2012.
- "Corporatocracy". Oxford Dictionaries. Retrieved May 29, 2012. "/ˌkôrpərəˈtäkrəsē/ .... a society or system that is governed or controlled by corporations:"
- Spencer Heath MacCallum (June 1, 1998) A Peaceful Ferment in Somalia. The Independent Institute. Independent.org. Retrieved on 2013-03-15.
- American 1225
- "Plutocracy Rising" Moyers & Company. Billmoyers.com (2012-10-19). Retrieved on 2013-03-15.
- American 1793
- "Decentralism: Where It Came From-Where Is It Going?". Amazon.com. ASIN 1551642484.
- "Anarchy." Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 2004. The first quoted usage is 1667
- "Anarchy." Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 2004. The first quoted usage is 1552
- "Anarchy." Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 2004. The first quoted usage is 1850.
- "Noam Chomsky on the history of Anarchy". Youtube.com. 2011-09-07. Retrieved 2012-01-30.
- "A discussion on what anarchy is, by those that self-identify as anarchists". anarchy.net.
- Marshall, Monty G.; Cole, Benjamin R. (1 December 2011). "Global Report 2011: Conflict, Governance, and State Fragility" (PDF). Vienna: Center for Systemic Peace. Retrieved 2012-08-15.
- Vernon, Phil; Baksh, Deborrah (September 2010). "Working with the Grain to Change the Grain: Moving Beyond the Millennium Development Goals" (PDF). London: International Alert. p. 29. Retrieved 2012-08-15.
- Richard Alan White (1984). The Morass. United States Intervention in Central America. New York: Harper & Row. p. 319. ISBN 9780060911454.
- "Big-business Greed Killing the Banana (p. A19)". The Independent, via The New Zealand Herald. 24 May 2008. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- O. Henry (15 December 2009). Cabbages and Kings. MobileReference. p. 198. ISBN 978-1-60778-412-8. Retrieved 15 March 2013. "While he was in Honduras, Porter coined the term 'banana republic'"
- Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws (1748), Bk. II, ch. 1.
- "Republic". Encyclopædia Britannica.
- "republic". WordNet 3.0 (Dictionary.com). Retrieved 20 March 2009.
- "Republic". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 14 August 2010.
- Montesquieu, Spirit of the Laws, Bk. II, ch. 2–3.
- Freedom in The World, 2014 scores table (PDF)
Bibliography
- American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th ed.). 222 Berkeley Street, Boston, MA 02116: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-395-82517-2
Further reading
- Krader, Lawrence (1968). Formation of the State, in Foundations of Modern Anthropology Series. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. x, 118 p.
External links
|
Look up government in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
|
Look up Appendix:List of forms of government in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
- The Phrontistery Word List: Types of Government and Leadership
- What Are the Different Types of Governments?
- Types of Governments from Historical Atlas of the 20th Century
- Other classifications examples from Historical Atlas of the 20th Century
- World Affairs: Types of Government
- Regime Types
- CBBC Newsround: types of government
- Bill Moyers: Plutocracy Rising
- Phobiocracy by Chris Claypoole
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