HISTORY FORM FOUR SUMMARY NOTES.

4.1.0 Crises in the capitalist system
4.1.1 The First World War
Causes of the First World War - Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary, Moroccan Crisis between France and Britain, dissatisfaction with British dominance of colonies, triple alliance of Russia/Britain/France and triple entity of Italy/Germany/Austria-Hungary, Belgian anger about the Boers in South Africa, failure of powers to agree on control of colonial land
4.1.2 The Great Depression
Great Depression (1929-1939) - A period of profound worldwide economic crisis which ended with the beginning of World War II. It began with the crash of the American stock market in 1929
4.1.3 The Second World War
Why did decolonization/nationalism gain momentum after the Second World War - Weakened economic and military strength of Britain, France and Germany, European powers were dependent upon the USA for economic rebuilding (Marshall Plan), African soldiers began to demand freedom/self-determination/democracy, Pan-Africanism began to take hold, USA supported decolonization, British Labour party opposed colonialism (took power in 1945), success of other countries like India/Pakistan/Burma in achieving independence
4.2.0 Nationalism and decolonization
4.2.1 Nationalism in Africa
Reasons why the dream of a united Africa has not been realized - Lack of unity among countries, political instability, selfishness among leaders, colonial legacy, intertribal hatred, different levels of economic development, environmental problems, small countries fear big countries will dominate, competition among leaders (i.e. Nyerere and Nkrumah)
The presence of Makerere University formed a part of regional intellectual elite in East Africa
4.2.2 The rise of social and welfare associations
Roles of welfare associations, religious movements and cooperative societies in the struggles for independence in East Africa - Promoted unity among various ethnic groups, acted as training schools for East African leaders, raised awareness and consciousness among the colonized, laid foundations for political parties, provided social services that Europeans did not provide
4.2.3 The rise of protest and religious movements
Early (Proto) Nationalism (1900-1940) - The first phase of the development of protest movements in Africa
Characteristics of early nationalism - Arose as a result of colonial exploitation and oppression, influenced by the Pan-African Conference, generally lacked unity among protest groups
Role played by welfare, peasant associations and tribal organizations in gaining independence - Brought unity among tribes, awareness was raised, gave a forum for discussion, gave moral and material support, was a stepping stone towards successful nationalism
Modern (Proper) Nationalism (1945-1990) - The last phase of the development of protest movements in Africa which resulted in majority independence for African states
4.2.4 The rise of mass nationalism and political parties in Africa
Factors affecting the rise of nationalism in Africa -
Internal - Grievances with colonial rule (exploitation, oppression, poor services, lack of power, land alienation, taxation, cattle confiscation)
External - Europeans were looking to reform colonial rule in Africa (contribution by the USA/USSR after WWII), former soldiers, independence of Pakistan and India (1947)
Role played by the nationalist parties in the struggle for independence in Africa - Created unity among people, preparing people for self-government, helped peasants get better prices for their crops, demanding representation in legislation, opposed governments land alienation policies
List of nationalist parties - Convention Peoples Party (CPP), Tanganyika African National Union (TANU), KANU, FRELIMO, ANC
Reasons for the outbreak of the Chimurenga war in Southern Rhodesia by the Shona and Ndebele - Land alienation, forced labour, harsh treatment, taxation policies, interference with Shona trade with the Portuguese, desire for freedom, destruction of culture, cattle confiscation
Problems which faced Uganda during nationalistic struggles - Tribalism, religious tensions, regionalism, uneven distribution of education, class division, many opposition parties
4.2.5 Decolonization through constitutional means
Nonviolent Decolonization - Decolonization through the uses of negotiation (talking, parliamentary means, demonstrations, petitions, boycotts) against colonial rule which were usually done by the elite political leaders (ex JK Nyerere, Kwame Nkrumah, Leopard Senghor, Kenneth Kaunda, etc)
Tanganyika achieved Independence earlier than Kenya and Uganda because it was a trusteeship
4.2.6 Decolonization through armed struggle
Factors that prolonged the struggle to eliminate apartheid/gain independence/get majority rule in South Africa - Prohibition of nationalist movements, lack of financial resources to support nationalist movements, white settlers controlled the economy, foreign support of Apartheid to suppress the spread of communism, large number of white settlers in the country, use of force and violence to suppress anti-apartheid movements i.e. Soweto Massacre and Sharpeville Massacre, weak support from neighbouring countries, multinational companies invested in mines/plantations/industry, ethnic and tribal

divisions, possession of Namibia by the South Africa regime provided a safe place to wage war from, lack of serious support from the UN/USA due to fears of communism spreading, lack of political awareness among South Africans
4.2.7 Decolonization through revolution
Revolution - An armed struggle by a large group within the society against the colonial government
Case Study of Revolution - Zanzibar
Zanzibar Revolution - A 19th century battle that lasted about 45 minutes but demonstrated the iron fist of the pre-colonial European colonial powers in East Africa
Leader of the Zanzibar Revolution - John Okello (from Uganda)
Causes of the Zanzibar Revolution - Exploitation of the population to grow cloves, economic difficulties faced by Zanzibaris, grievances between different Arab groups in Zanzibar, land allocation
Zanzibar Independence - Zanzibar received its independence from the British on December 10th, 1963
4.3.0 Changes in political, social and economic policies in Africa after independence
4.3.1 Changes in political, ideological and administrative systems
Political changes in African states since the 1980s resulted from internal and external forces - Internal: National unity and integrity, constitutional changes, colonial legacy External: End of cold war, role of USA and USSR, non-alignment movement
4.3.2 Changes in economic development policies and strategies
Reasons Tanzania created and kept a policy of self-reliance and socialism (1967) - Kagera War 1978/1979, oil crisis of 1973/1974, misuses of public funds, drought
Neo-colonialism operates politically through the IMF and World Bank in the form of grants and loans
4.3.3 Provision of education in Africa after independence
Changes in provision of education after independence - Expansion in the numbers of higher education institutions, new curriculums and syllabuses, training of new teachers, Africanization of educational system and topics, less control by missionaries of the education system (secularization)
Weaknesses of the educational system after independence - Quality of education was reduced (due to shortage of experienced teachers), corruption in the education system, poorly written examinations (or widespread cheating), neglecting vocational education, literacy levels remain low, lack of employment after finishing education
4.3.4 Changes in the provision of health services
Changes in the provision of health services - Doctors/nurses were trained, hospitals and dispensaries were built, vaccination programs began (small box, sleeping sickness, leprosy)
Problems in the provision of health services - Not enough doctors/nurses, lack of hospitals/dispensaries, lack of proper training of medical personnel, lack of family planning services, low protein intake leads to malnutrition and resistance to disease, services are unevenly distributed (found in towns and not in rural areas), qualified doctors move to other countries, lack of clean water, lack of focus on health care by the government
4.3.5 Changes in the provision of water services
(Not found in exams)
4.3.6 Changes in the provision of housing
Problems in provision of housing - Lack of funds, lack of employment, lack of running water, not a high priority for the government, severe shortage of low rent houses
4.3.7 Establishment of national military and national legal institutions
(Not found in exams)
4.3.8 Problems hindering development in Africa after independence
Problems faced by Nigeria since its independence - Tribalism, military coups, poverty, HIV/malaria, unemployment, corruption, regionalism, oil
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4.4.0 Africa in international affairs
4.4.1 Continental cooperation
Role of the OAU in the decolonization of Africa - Coordinated opposition to colonial rule, assisted leaders who were the targets of assassinations, allowed countries under colonial rule to air grievances and to condemn them openly
4.4.2 African regional cooperation
Explain the objectives of the newly reestablished East African community - Economic integration between East African countries, unity among East African countries, free movement of goods and people
4.4.3 Africa in International affairs
Why the USA changed its isolation policy towards colonialism - Wanted private enterprise from America to enter colonies without political interference from Europeans, rise of the USA as a global power
Benefits gained by members of the Commonwealth - Economic relations, diversified economies, inclusion in global economy, better trade arrangements, peace/stability, commitments to human rights
Notable failures of the UN is its inability to control the actions of big powers, prevent genocide, nuclear proliferation
5.1.0 Definitions
Anthropologist - Studies the history of human culture and development
Archaeologist - Studies remains to learn about events from the past
Assegai - Ngoni short stabbing spears first adopted by East African Societies
Assimilation - A policy aimed at promoting the French language, culture and work ethic in French colonies to weaken African resistance and strengthen their rule in the colonies
COMESA (Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa) - Free trade agreement between 19 countries in Africa, formed in 1994
Devonshire White Paper - Declared officially in 1923 that in Kenya, the concerns of Africans were "paramount", even when they conflicted with the needs of whites
Dynasty - Family of rulers in which the right to rule passes within the family from father to children
Feudalism - A system in which kings and noblemen hold territory that is granted to peasants or serfs, in Africa during the interlucastrine period it was private ownership of land and cattle
FRELIMO - Group that fought for independence of Mozambique from Portugal from 1964-1975
HABITAT - United Nations agency responsible for human settlement
History - Human activities against nature and production relations are fully understood through this subject
IBEACO - British East Africa Company, founded in 1886 by William Macknon
Indirect Rule - Used by the British in West Africa and Uganda by using traditional African institutions to manage the affairs of colonized peoples such as local chiefs
International African Association - Launched by King Leopold to spearhead the colonization of the Congo in 1876
Kayamaghan - The title given to the King of Ghana meaning “Master of Gold”
Koumbi Saleh - Found in modern day Mauritania, was the former capital of the Ghana Empire destroyed in 1076 by Berber raiders
Liberia and Sierra Leone - Settlements of freed slaves
Lukiko - The Kabaka’s council and court of appeal in the Buganda Kingdom of Uganda
Matrilineal - A system where people trace their ancestors and inherit property through mothers
Microlith - Smaller, refined stone tools made by man during the Middle Stone Age
Monarchy - A political system by which a king or queen occupies a throne
Monetization - Changing from a barter economy to one based on the use of money
Moresby Treaty - Made it illegal to sell slaves from East Africa to Christian countries
Myths - Traditional stories about the past
Nationalist Parties - Parties formed by Africans during colonialism with the aim of fighting colonialism in order to gain political independence
Native Authority Ordinance of 1921 - Segregation act in South Africa which preceded Apartheid
Neolithic Revolution - Entailed domestication of plants and animals, occurred in the Late Stone Age
NEPAD - A political and economic programme which aims at promoting democracy, stability, good governance and economic development in Africa
Non-Alignment Movement - Main aim was to balance the influence of the two superpowers
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Oral Tradition - Historical information is passed on by word of mouth from generation to generation
Preservation - A policy used by the British in the establishment of the colonial economy which aimed to retain some pre-colonial African structure/elements
Resistance - A phenomenon of hostility whereby societies react against imposition of colonial rule
SADC (Southern African Development Community) - Goal is to further economic and social cooperation and integration among southern African countries
Slave Trade - Transaction of buying and selling humans as commodities
Soweto Massacre - The event which marked the end of peaceful protests by African nationalists in South Africa in 1976
The Commonwealth - A worldwide association of countries that were once colonies of Britain who share common commitments to promoting human rights, democracy and economic development
The Dutch East India Company - The first trading company which set a regular supply station at the cape.
Transatlantic Slave Trade (Triangular Slave Trade) - Trade between Americas, Europe and Africa exchanging goods, raw materials and slaves
Treaty of Ucciali - Treaty in 1889 by King Melenik of Ethiopia ceding land to Italy which is now Eritrea
Treaty of Versailles - Treaty signed in Paris France in 1919 between Allied powers and Germany ending World War I
Ubugabire - An exploitative relation between the cattle owning Tutsi and Hutu agriculturalists in Rwanda
Ujamaa Villages - Tanzanian attempt to increase food production and cash crops
UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization) - Responsible for literacy, historical sites, and culture
UNHCR (United Nations High Commission for Refugees) - United Nations agency responsible for refugees
Voortekker - The Boer’s exodus from the cape
Zijanthropus - Had massive teeth which were used for grinding food, early ancestor of man from the Early Stone Age
5.2.0 People
Abeid Aman Karume - Architect of the union between Zanzibar and Tanganyika
Alafin - Title given to the King of the Oyo Empire in West Africa
Anwar Sadat - Former President of Egypt, assassinated in 1981
Berber - Merchants provided capital and arranged caravans across the Sahara Desert
Cecil Rhodes - Founder of Rhodesia and the DeBeers diamond company, believed strongly in imperialism and colonialism. Wanted the British Empire to go from Cairo to Cape Town
Dr John Robert Moffat - Worked as a missionary in Rabai among the Ndebele, facilitated treaty between IBEACO and King Lobengula in South Africa
Dr. David Livingstone - Opened up Africa to the British through his first and second journeys to Africa, missionary
Dr. Louis Leakey - Discovered the skull of Dryopithecus on Rusinga Island in 1959
Eduardo Mondlane - First President of Mozambique under FRELIMO, was assassinated in 1969
Francisco D’Almeida - Lead the Portuguese conquest of East Africa coast in 1505
Ghana Empire - Destroyed by Berber raiders, lasted from 790-1076
Hehe Chiefdom - An example of militarized centralized state in South-Central Tanzania
Henry Morton Stanley - Found Dr. David Livingstone at Ujiji to assure the British Empire that Livingstone was still collecting data for the imperialists
Henry the Navigator - Portuguese prince who was responsible for the beginning of European worldwide exploration
Kabaka - The title given to the king of Buganda
Karl Peters - Head of the German East Africa Company which was formed in 1884 to control German affairs in Tanganyika
King Solomoni - Started the Ethiopian Empire in the 4th century
Kingdom of Luba - Pre-colonial African kingdom in south-eastern Congo from 1585-1889
Kingdom of Lunda - Pre-colonial African kingdom in south-western Congo from 1665-1887
Kinjekitile Ngwale - Kolelo priest at Ngarambe who told people that his magic water would protect them from European bullets, mobilized followers against Germans before the Maji Maji war
Kwame Nkrumah - First President of Ghana, early leader of Pan-Africanism
Mkwawa - Hehe tribal leader who opposed German rule in Tanzania
Mutapa - Kingdom which lasted from 1430-1760 in modern day Zimbabwe and Mozambique, builders of Great Zimbabwe
Mzilikazi - Founded Matabele Kingdom, died in 1868
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Nok culture - Appeared around 1000BC and vanished around 200AD in central Nigeria, had advanced social system/arts
Ogun - The Yoruba/Nigerian god of iron
Othman Dan Fodio, Alhaj Omar, Ahmed Seku - Formed big Empires like Mandika and Sokoto Caliphate during the Jihad war in East Africa
Otto von Bismarck - Chaired the Berlin conference of 1884/1885
Patrice Lumumba - Former president of Congo-Kinshasa who was the first president assassinated in post-colonial Africa in 1961
Pierre De Brazza - French explorer who opened up Central Africa for French colonization north of the Congo River in Republic of Congo and Gabon
Pombeiros - Early traders in Angola and Congo who obtained slaves
Samora Machel - Former President of Mozambique, assassinated in 1986
Samori Toure - Creator of an Islamic state called the Wassoulou Empire in West Africa, resisted French for a long period of time
Shaka Zulu - United Nguni people to form the Zulu kingdom. Born in 1787. Died in 1828.
Sir Charles Elliot - First British governor of Kenya, stressed the establishment of a settler economy
Sir D. Cameron - British governor of Tanganyika who was resisted by Tanganyikans
Sultan Seyyid Said - Moved his capital from Muscat to Zanzibar in 1840, died in 1856
Sylvanus Olympio - Former President of Togo, assassinated in 1963
The Khoikhoi - The earliest inhabitants of the cape
Vasco De Gama - Rounded the cape of Good Hope and entered the Indian Ocean in 1497
5.3.0 Dates
1487 - Bartholomew Diaz passes the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa
1497 - Vasco Da Gama reaches India, sent by Henry the Navigator of Portugal
1498 - Christopher Columbus discovers the sea route to America
1503 - Zanzibar attacked by the Portuguese
1505 - Portuguese explorer Francisco D’Almeida subdued Kilwa, Sofala and Mombasa
1507 - Mozambique becomes the headquarters of the Portuguese in East Africa
1580 - Sir Francis Drake became the first British man to round the cape
1593 - Fort Jesus is built by the Portuguese in Mombasa
1652 - Jan van Riebeeck establishes a Dutch post at the Cape of Good Hope
1698 - Capture of Fort Jesus by Arabs, Portuguese lose the fort
1698 - Zanzibar comes under control of the Sultan of Oman, Portuguese are defeated
1700 - The end of Portuguese dominance in East Africa
1776 - American Independence
1789 - French Revolution
1800 - Coming of the Ngoni to East Africa
1807 - The British passed a law which abolished the slave trade by its subjects
1822 - A settlement for several thousands freed slaves was founded at Monrovia, Liberia
1822 - Moresby Treaty discussed
1840 - Sultan of Oman moves his capital from Muscat to Zanzibar
1846 - Johann Krapf opened the first mission station at Rabai in Mombasa
1859 - Darwin proposes the theory of evolution through natural selection
1870/1871 - Franco-Prussian war
1871 - Henry Stanley finds Dr. Livingstone near Lake Tanganyika
1873 - Slave market closed in Zanzibar
1875 - Discovery of gold in South Africa
1876 - International African Association is created by King Leopold to develop the Congo Free State
1879 - End of slave trade in East Africa, replaced with normal trade
1884/1885 - Berlin Conference, aimed to prevent war between Europeans over African colonies
1885 - Start of German East Africa
1890 - Beginning of British rule in Zanzibar
1890 - Helgoland treaty between British and Germans for control of Zanzibar by the British
1893 - Death of Isike
1896/1897 - Chimurenga War in Southern Rhodesia by Shona and Ndebele tribes
1900 - Buganda Agreement
1900 - The War of the Golden Stool (Ashanti Uprising) in Ghana by the Ashanti tribe against British rule
1907 - Uganda Railway reached Lake Victoria
1917 - Russian Revolution
1919 - End of German colonial rule of East Africa due to their loss in WWI
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1919 - Formation of the League of Nations due to the end of WWI
1919 - Formation of the Nazi party in Germany
1920 - Bataka Movement and the Young Buganda Association started in Uganda
1921 - Founding of African National Congress (ANC)
1921 - Young Kikuyu Organization was formed
1922 - Formation of Tanganyika Territory Civil Servant Association (TTCSA)
1922 - Tanganyika African Civil Service Association (TTACSA) was founded by Martin Kayamba in Tanga
1923 - Devonshire white paper released
1929 - Great Depression begins with the stock market crash
1929 - Tanganyika Africa Association (TAA) is formed
1939 - Italians were defeated by Ethiopia under Emperor Menelik II
1945 - Dr. Kwame Nkurumah at the Manchester Conference first proposes an African union
1945 - End of World War 2
1945 - World Bank opens
1946 - Burns Constitution (Gold Coast Constitution) is written in Ghana, Africans allowed into legislature
1947 - Independence of India and Pakistan
1947 - Marshall Plan started which was introduced to rebuild the European economy after WWII
1947 - Sukuma Development Scheme commences
1948 - Apartheid policy was officially announced in South Africa
1948 - The national party in South Africa won and gave the Afrikaners complete political power
1952 - Jomo Kenyatta is arrested, becomes 1st Prime Minister/President of Kenya in 1963/1964
1954 - Birth of Tanganyika African National Union (TANU)
1954 - Mkwawa’s head was returned from Germany
1957 - Independence of Ghana under Dr. Kwame Nkrumah
1959 - Dr. Louis Leakey discovered the skull of Dryopithecus on Rusinga Island
1960 - The Sharpeville massacre in South Africa
1962 - Uganda got partial independence, flag independence, not yet real independence
1963 - End of British colonial rule in Zanzibar, left the Sultan of Oman as the Head of State
1963 - Formation of OAU in Addis Ababa
1964 - Armed struggle started in Mozambique by FRELIMO
1964 - Jan 12, revolution of Zanzibar began
1965 - Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) in Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) under Ian Smith
1967 - Policies of socialism and self-reliance are introduced to Tanzania
1969 - Suez Canal was opened
1973/1974 - Oil crisis
1974/1975 - Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique and Angola gain independence from Portugal
1975 - Angolan civil war begins
1976 - Soweto Massacre in South Africa
1980s - Introduction of SAP (Structural Adjustment Programmes) in Tanzania
1982 - Tanzania adopts National Economic Survival Program
1989 - Collapse of the Soviet Union and Soviet Bloc
1990 - Nelson Mandela released from Robben Island
1992 - Introduction of multi party system in Tanzania
1994 - Genocide in Rwanda
1994 - Nelson Mandela becomes President of South Africa
1994 - The first election in South Africa and South Africa becomes an independent state
1995 - Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group (CMAG) was formed
2001 - The OAU changed to the African Union
Time Periods
15th century - Slave trade was first introduced in West Africa
1834-1854 - Boer Trek
1885-1919 - Period of German colonial rule in East Africa
1895-1905 - Nandi Rebellion
1891-1898 - Hehe resistance
1905-1907 - Maji Maji Rebellion
1914-1918 - World War 1
1929-1940 - Great Depression (Great Economic Crisis)
1939-1945 - World War 2
1952-1960 - Mau Mau war begins
19th century - Slave trade spreads to East Africa

HISTORY FORM THREE SUMMARY NOTES.

3.1.0 Establishment of colonialism
3.1.1 Scramble for and partition of Africa
The motivational forces behind the scramble for Africa - Economic imperialism, an economic slump from 1873-1893, growth of nationalism in Europe, the Berlin Conference, strategic considerations, control of the Niger Delta/Egypt/Congo Basin/Suez Canal/East Africa
The areas controlled by European powers during the scramble for Africa - French controlled West Africa, Belgians controlled Congo, British controlled Southern Africa/Uganda/Kenya

/Egypt/Sudan/Nigeria/Ghana, Germans controlled Namibia/Tanzania/Cameroon, Italians controlled Eritrea/Somalia/Libya, Portuguese controlled Angola/Mozambique/Guinea-Bissau
Some areas in Africa experienced more intensive scramble than others in the 19th century because they were economically strategic
3.1.2 The Berlin Conference (1884-1885)
The resolutions of the Berlin Conference of 1884/1885 - King Leopold’s claim for Congo is legalized, Congo and Niger rivers were free commercial and navigation zones, countries who controlled coastal areas legally could expand to the interior, administration and infrastructure must be built, missionaries/traders were given free access to the interior to ‘civilize’ Africa and end the slave trade, set boundaries to help resolve conflict among European powers and to avoid war
The outcome of the Berlin Conference was an agreement on how to colonize Africa
One-sided treaties made by explorers in Africa helped the Berlin Conference to identify areas of exploitation
The USA attended the Berlin Conference as an observer
3.1.3 Establishment of colonial rule
What methods did the Germans use in the conquest of Tanganyika - Diplomacy, unfair treaties, violence, collaboration with local chiefs
What were the decisions reached in the Anglo-German Agreement (Helgoland) of 1890 - Tanganyika came under the sphere of influence of Germany, Britain gained influence over Zanzibar/Pemba/ Kenya/Uganda, completed the partition of East Africa, administration was left to their chartered companies
What were the reasons for and effects of the Anglo-German Agreement (Helgoland) of 1890 -
Reasons for - Zanzibar was to be recognized, Britain wanted Uganda to control the source of the Nile river
Effects of - partition of East Africa was completed, Dar es Salaam and Mombasa became main ports linked by railways, the treaty was the beginning of colonialism
Treaties between the British and the Sultan of Oman to end the slave trade in Zanzibar
Moresby Treaty - 1st attempt by the British to end the slave trade in Zanzibar, 1822
Harmeton Treaty - 2nd attempt by the British to end the slave trade in Zanzibar, 1845
Frere Treaty - 3rd treaty by the British to end the slave trade in Zanzibar, slave market closed 1873
Europeans abandoned going into the interior of Africa to get slaves because it was risky to them due to violence and tropical diseases
During the colonial period, provision of social services was not given a priority to Africans because social services would take part of the profits away from Europeans
Britain was interested in Uganda because it was situated at the head of the Nile river
Ethiopia was not colonized
3.1.4 African reactions to colonial rule
Reasons why some Africans collaborated with colonialists - They were militarily weak, to avoid confrontation with rival tribes, to acquire arms from Europeans, wanted peace, wanted opportunities in colonial governments, desire for wealth/power, ignorance of European intentions, they were Christian
Reasons why some Africans resisted colonial rule - Europeans supported traditional enemies, protect their own economic interests, defend sovereignty, opposing brutal colonial policies, to defend traditional culture/religion
Reasons why conflicts between Africans and Whites were inevitable - Colonial alliances with traditional tribal enemies, wanted to remove exploitative structures, resist land alienation, defend political sovereignty, preserve their trade monopolies, harsh treatment and exploitative policies, resisting European culture and Christianity
The causes of Maji Maji war of 1905-1907 in Tanganyika - Germans brutal treatment of natives, tradition of resisting foreigners, forced cultivation of cotton, confiscation of land and cattle, introduction of taxation, forced labour, political dissatisfaction with the German government
How the Maji Maji war of 1905-1907 in Tanganyika remains a symbol of the African struggle against colonial rule - It opposed the following colonial practices: Forced labour, imposition of heavy taxes and fines, disruption of traditional rule and practices, colonial ruthlessness, Africans gained the spirit of leadership against colonialism, people learned how to defend their rights, united people of different tribes, stepping stone towards decolonization
3.2.0 Colonial administrative systems
3.2.1 Direct rule, indirect rule, assimilation and association

Compare and contrast British (Indirect rule) and French system (Assimilation) of administration as practiced in Africa during colonial period. - Similarities: Racist towards Africans, whites occupied high offices of administration, instituted legislative council of chiefs, taxation and forced labour, laws and policies were created in Europe not Africa. Differences: French saw colonies as part of France, British saw colonies as distinct entities, French Africans became French citizens, British ones did not, French rule was highly centralized and run from Dakar, British tried to respect traditional methods of choosing chiefs
Why the British chose indirect rule - The system was inexpensive, British lacked enough people to administer colonies, avoided clashes with natives, administration structures existed in Nigeria and Buganda, geographical difficulties in controlling colonial Africa
The British exercised direct rule in some parts of Zimbabwe because the natives and traditional chiefs opposed colonial rule
3.2.2 Colonial military and legal institutions
Colonial Military Institutions - Refers to army and police forces used to maintain law, order and security in the state
Functions of colonial military institutions - Suppressing African resistance, maintaining security, preserving peace, arresting criminals, defending boundaries, collecting taxes, supervision public works, enforce land alienation policies, help in the invasion and domination of colonial powers in Africa
Colonial Legal Institutions - Institutions dealing with education, legal aid, courts, prisons, implementing indirect rule
Functions of colonial legal institutions - Make laws/acts/ordinances, amend laws/acts/ordinances, deal with people’s claims, direct legal procedures, supporting legal institutions like the courts and prisons
3.3.0 Colonial economy
3.3.1 Establishment of the colonial economy
How the colonial state upheld the interests of white settlers in Kenya - Establishment of army/police/judiciary/prisons to control power, encouraging settler migration from Europe to Kenya, confiscating fertile land from indigenous to give to Europeans, imposition of taxation, transportation means were built like roads/railways/ports, provided easy loans to settlers, Africans were banned from participating in the production of cash crops
What were the negatives and positives of colonial economies on the Africa continent -
Negatives - Production was based on white settler plantations with African labour, destruction of traditional economic practices, ending of the barter system, introduction of colonial administration, neglect of food crops
Positives - Introduction of money economy, building of infrastructure, technology is brought in, new products become available
Settlers were favoured by colonial governments because - Fertile land was given to white settlers and Africans were given infertile land, taxation of Africans, demanding cheap African labour on settlers farms/mines, government grants/loans given to settlers, monopoly of cash crops
Effects of a colonial economy on East Africa - Uneven distribution of social and physical infrastructure, establishment of a heavy mining industry in Tanganyika, introduction of new crops like sisal/cotton/pyrethrum, utilization of cheap African labour
In Sierra Leone colonization was accompanied by mass European settlement
The British built the Uganda railway in order to gain easy access to resources surrounding the interlucastrine area
3.3.2 Sectors of the colonial economy
The following sectors of the colonial economy favoured Europeans and Asians in Africa - Agriculture, mining, financial institutions, transport and commerce
Characteristics of settler and plantation agriculture in colonial Africa - Products were meant for export and profit, needed large number of labourers and lots of land, needed infrastructure like railroads, based on cash crop production rather than on solving economic problems of the indigenous, land alienation, direct supervision by colonial officials to ensure efficient production of materials
Why did the colonial powers oppose the development of manufacturing industries in the colonies - Colonists had no interest, wanted raw materials from Africa, manufacturing was done in Europe, wanted Africans to remain as cheap labour, wanted Africa to be a market of European goods
Goals of transport construction - Transporting raw materials from the interior to the coast, transporting missionaries to the interior, facilitating communication with mining areas/farms, transport migrant labourers, transporting soldiers, transporting colonialadministrators, strategic reasons (Uganda line was
built by the British to be used against the Belgians in the Congo to protect the head of the Nile river), to open up Africa for European exploitation, to learn about the geography of the interior
Characteristics of colonial infrastructure - Railways and road networks started from the coast and moved into the interior, no connection between colonies from different powers, they did not build roads to serve Africans in the rainy seasons, very few communication networks were built, constructed mainly through forced labour and financed by taxes collected from Africans
3.3.3 Colonial labour
Methods used to obtain labour - Land alienation, use of force, use of communal labour, use of feudal relations, conscription, use of contract labour, western education was introduced to train administrators, creation of labour reserves, taxation, low wages, introduction of manufactured goods
Conditions of labourers in colonies - Labourers were paid low wages, discrimination against Africans, no insurance for Africans, Africans could not travel without a pass in their own country, forced labour, Africans were oppressed/exploited/humiliated, labourers were refused social services
3.4.0 Colonial social services
3.4.1 Colonial education
Critically examine the problems of colonial education to Africa societies - Based on race/gender/religion, syllabus determined by colonialists, very few Africans received education, examinations were used as the means to limit student success, some regions were not given education, education of Africans was inferior to whites, created educated and uneducated classes
3.4.2 Colonial health services
Objectives of colonial health services - Maintaining and protecting the health of colonialists, tried to eradicate malaria and other diseases, training nurses and doctors, improving health and hygiene of Africans
Characteristics of colonial health services - Offered on the basis of race, few African doctors, services were offered in towns and missionary centers, medicine was curative and not preventative, Europeans did not use traditional African medicine, little funding from the colonial government
Impact of colonial health services - Reinforced racial classes in colonies, areas without raw materials were not provided health services, created regional imbalances between towns/missionary/plantation areas and the rest of the colony, people relied on curative treatments instead of preventative care, Africans abandoned traditional medicine
3.4.3 Provision of water and housing services during the colonial era
Objectives of provision of water and housing services - Aimed at serving settlers/soldiers/labourers, served members of the colonial bureaucracy/administration, improved health and hygiene for Africans in towns
Characteristics of water and housing services - Offered on the basis of race, unevenly distributed (depended on the economic value of an area), areas for labourers had no housing of water services which were established by colonialists, based on religious grounds (missionary areas had better water)
Impact of water and housing services - Reinforced racial classes in colonies, areas without raw materials or colonialists were marginalized and denied services, created regional imbalances.

HISTORY FORM TWO SUMMARY NOTES

2.1.0 Interactions among the people of Africa
2.1.1 Social and economic factors for interactions
Social and economic factors for interactions - Migration, religion, war, music, medicine, marriage
Economic factors of migration - African communities interacted due to economic factors like crafts, trade, farming and pastoralism
2.1.2 The coming of the Ngoni
Analyze the circumstances that brought about the Ngoni migration (1800s) and its effects -
Causes - Began in the 19th century when Shaka Zulu began conquering neighbouring states to establish the Zulu Empire (Ngoni fled north)
Effects - Long Distance Trade was disrupted and became disorganized (ex. Yao + Nyamwezi), Ngoni brought war to peaceful areas, introduction of new culture and ways of keeping law & order, introduced new military techniques ex. Assegai spears/cattle horn formation, people were left homeless, land was confiscated by the Ngoni, Hehe unified with the help of Ngoni military tactics
2.2.0 Social-economic development and production in pre-colonial Africa
2.2.1 Social organization and production
Identify the main characteristics of pre-colonial education - Main purpose was to transmit knowledge of the society to individuals such as agricultural techniques or production of crafts/tools, education was an ongoing activity taking into account stages of an individual’s status or age in the society, the society was responsible for education rather than schools, education was informal
Many African societies had education systems which transferred knowledge from elders to the next generation by the 16th century
2.2.2 Types of social organizations and production
Social Organization - Refers to the system how an individual within a group relate with each other in order to exist harmoniously
Production - The process by which people create goods to satisfy their needs and to accumulate a surplus for times of need or for sale. Production can involve manufacturing, mining, crop cultivation or animal keeping
2.2.2.1 Communalism
Communalism - A system whereby people live together and practice common ownership of property. It is believed to have originated during the early stages of human evolution
Characteristics of communalism - People living by hunting and gathering, people lived in small groups, there was no exploitation of man by man (no classes existed), work was done communally
2.2.2.2 Slavery
Slavery - An economic system which involves the ownership and use of slaves for economic production. Slaves were considered property during pre-colonial Africa and were bought or sold or given as a gift and forced to work without any rewards
How people became slaves - Born into bondage (their parents were slaves), interaction between communities (ex war, kidnapping), criminals taken as slaves, disadvantaged individuals (landless people)
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The slave trade rapidly expanded in East Africa in the 19th century because of - Portuguese slave trade from Mozambique to Brazil, Dutch and French trade dominance in Mauritius and Reunion Islands, introduction of cloves in Zanzibar, local rulers involvement in slave and ivory trade, power shifted from the interior to the coast allowing slaves to be sent to Asia and the Middle East
2.2.2.3 Feudalism
Feudalism - The system of production where wealthy landowners rented land to landless people in exchange for a fee in the form of services or goods
Examples of feudalism - Nupe, Ankole, Buganda, Karagwe
Characteristics of feudalism - Land was owned by a few rich people, majority were landless (serfs or peasants), there were two distinct classes (those with land, those without land)
Most centralized states in Africa were based on feudalism
2.3.0 Africa and the external world
2.3.1 Early contact with the Middle East and Far East
One of the negative impacts of Africa’s contact with the Middle East was the growth of the slave trade
2.3.2 Contacts with Europe
2.3.2.1 The Portuguese
How the Portuguese disrupted the development of trade in the Indian Ocean up to the 17th century - Portuguese captured and controlled trade in the Indian Ocean, by waging war with Arab traders to monopolize trade, changing trade routes from the Indian Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean, introduction or imposition of trading licenses and permits, heavy taxes and duties on traders
Impacts of the Portuguese intrusion in East Africa in the 16th century - Directed East African trade to the south and to the Atlantic Ocean, decay of Indian Ocean trade, prosperity of Arab states greatly declined in East Africa and were destroyed by the Portuguese, Portuguese introduced Christianity, introduced new crops like maize/cassava/pineapples/groundnuts
Reasons for short lived presence of the Portuguese in East Africa - Tropical diseases, social-cultural/religious differences, climatic conditions, loss of trade, harsh treatment of the indigenous, revolts by city states
Reasons why the Portuguese colonies in Africa engaged in armed struggles for liberation - Portuguese saw these countries as Portuguese provinces overseas, political parties were banned, Portugal was the poorest country in Europe and depended on their colonies, Portugal was a fascist state run by a dictator, Portugal felt it had a “civilizing mission” in Africa, Portuguese settlers did not want to leave, Portugal underestimated the power of nationalists
Reasons for Portuguese interest in the East African Coast - Coast was a restocking point for ships heading east, to control/share trade by Persians/Arabs, to control trade from India, to levy taxes from coastal merchants, East Africa is strategically important for controlling marine trade in the Indian Ocean
2.3.2.2 The Dutch settlement at the Cape
Causes of the Boer’s Great Trek - Introduction of the English language to South Africa, land alienation of the Boers, presence of missionaries on the Cape, British control of the Cape
Effects of the Mfecane War - War by Shaka Zulu which took land from other tribes in South Africa, caused the Ngoni migration
2.3.2.3 Slave trade in the Indian Ocean and the Trans-Atlantic slave trade
Slavery in East Africa was introduced by Arabs and Asians as early as 2 AD
Causes of the slave trade in the Indian Ocean - Arabs introduced clove plantations, high demand for slave labour on sugar plantations in Mauritius and Reunion, slaves were needed as porters
Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade (Triangular Trade) - The trade which occurred between West Africa, America and Europe
2.4.0 Industrial capitalism
2.4.1 Demands of industrial capitalism
Capitalism - An economic system whereby the major means of production are privately owned. The two groups of people in this system are employers and workers
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Factors affecting industrial capitalists in Europe - Coal and iron were available in large quantities in Europe, agrarian revolution, advancement of science and technology, trade, banking and insurance services encouraged industries to develop
Capitalism developed through three states 1. Mercantilism 2. Industrial capitalism 3. Monopoly capitalism
2.4.2 Agents of industrial capitalism
Reasons why missionaries became the forerunners of colonialism - Were deliberately sent by countries as agents of colonialism, worked as translators for treaties, softened views of locals to allow for incoming colonialists, converted Africans to a new faith which gave the colonial powers control of their religion, preaching of obedience reduced resistance, Church Missionary Society grew cotton in Uganda, exploration of the interior, drew maps
Roles of companies and associations in colonialism - Companies usually signed treaties, they enforced administrative laws, exploited the African continent and sent back information about the availability of resources, some companies enforced administrative law, traded with Africans and got raw materials for European industries, built roads/waterways/cities, marked boundaries for the interior of Africa, encouraged their home countries to colonize Africa
Examples of companies and associations in Africa - Africa Association of Britain (c1788 to find suitable agricultural land), Imperial British East Africa Company (IBEAC, c1886 to protect British interests in East Africa), German East Africa Company (c1884 by Karl Peters to handle German affairs in Tanganyika), Royal Niger Company (RNC, c1884 by George Goldies in West Africa), British South Africa Company (BSAC, created by Cecil Rhodes in central and southern Africa)
Prominent European missionaries include Johann Krapf, Dr. John Moffat, Dr. Livingstone
Europeans believed that the missionaries brought civilization to Africa
2.4.3 Abolition of the slave trade
Reasons for the abolition of slavery - Humanitarian considerations, economically unfeasible, industrial revolution, political pressure, French and British sugar competition (French used slaves and had a competitive advantage in the world sugar market, selling sugar at a lower price than the British)
Why the slave trade in East Africa took so long to abolish - The treaties between the Sultan of Oman and the British did not succeed in stopping the slave trade in Zanzibar, the Sultan of Oman depended on the slave trade for his clove business and to keep power, African chiefs who provided slaves had economic reasons to continue, firearms being sold to the interior made catching slaves much easier, French and British sugar competition meant that the French wanted to continue using slave labour on Mauritius and Reunion
What were the notable effects of the abolition of slave trade in East Africa - People started to settle permanently, replaced with legitimate trade, population increase, and freedom of tribes
The abolition of the slave trade caused the decline of the trans-Saharan trade and eventually caused the fall of the Sudanic states
2.4.4 British occupation of South African via the Cape
The British took control of the cape during the period of mercantilism in Europe
Boer Trek - The movement of Boers away from the Cape, towards the interior of South Africa, eventually causing the Mfecane war and the migration of the Ngoni
Tactics used by the British to occupy the Cape (causes of the Boer Trek) - Land legislation system which limited the size of an individuals land, abolishing the slave trade, English replaced Dutch as the official language, abolished the restructure of internal trade, the British maintained an army at the Cape
Impact of the Boers Trek - Development of unstable Boer republics (Transvaal, Natal), Orange Free State) with weak economic strength, caused conflict between Boers and Africans, Boers took African resources, Boers lost touch with their Dutch homeland, British extended their control to the interior to help Africans who were treated cruelly by the Boers

HISTORY FORM ONE SUMMARY NOTES.

Sources and importance of history
1.1.1 Meaning and importance
History - A branch of study that deals with the events and technological development of human beings throughout time, or the record of human activities
1.1.2 Sources of history
Sources of history - Oral tradition, archaeology, archives, museums, written records
1.2.0 Evolution of man, technology and environment
1.2.1 Evolution of man
Order of Ages
Early Stone Age - Began around 2.6 million years ago
- Homo Habilis and Zinjanthropus appear
- Wood and bone tools are used (crude tools)
- Lived a nomadic life as hunter/gatherers
Middle Stone Age - Ended around 50,000 BC
- Discovery of fire
- Development of sharper, smaller, portable tools
- Emergence of social and ethnic groups
Late Stone Age - Began around 50,000 BC to 3,300 BC
- Neolithic Revolution occurs
- Beginning of farming and domestication of animals
- Beginning of permanent settlement
Bronze Age - 3,300 BC until 1,200 BC
- Military technology develops, Empires begin
Iron Age - 1,200 BC until 400 AD
- Trade and Empires come to dominate human activities
Stages of human evolution
1. Australopithecus Africus – Zinjanthropus - Early ancestors of man
2. Homo Habilis - The tool maker
3. Homo Erectus - Standing upright
4. Homo Sapiens - Modern man (Homo Sapiens Sapiens)
Changes in humanity’s way of life during the late stone age (Neolithic) in Africa - Man used tools with better efficiency, tools were sharper/lighter/smaller, increased production because of better/efficient tools, man started to live in an area permanently instead of living nomadically, cultivation of food began, family life was more stable with the formation of villages, began era of division of labor by class/gender/age/wealth, population growth, fishing began, skilled craftsmen/traders emerge
Dryopithecus/Procensul did not become hominids; they developed into apes like gibbons
Venyopithecus and Ramapithecus became hominids
Man started to be a skillful toolmaker at the stage of Homo Habilis
By 1000AD iron technology began to appear widely in East Africa
Iron technology revolutionized agriculture
With fire and iron tools, man was able to clear large forests for farming
Some of the tools made from iron were spears, hoes and axes
Nok, Axum and Meroe were famous areas for iron smelting
Iron tools contributed to economic specialization
Iron tools increased military operations and expansions of states up through the 19th century
The growth and expansion of the Songhai Empire was a result of the development of iron technology
Early Stone Age sites in East Africa are located at Rusinga island, Olorgesailie, and Olduvai Gorge
1.3.0 Development of economic activities and their impact
1.3.1 Agriculture
Agriculture - The action by humans of keeping animals as well as the cultivation of crops

Effects of agriculture on humanity - Permanent settlement, population grew, specialization of activities, trade and physical activities
1.3.2 Handicrafts, industries and mining in pre-colonial Africa
Important types of industries in pre-colonial times - Basket making, pottery, iron smelting, tool making, mining
1.3.3 Trade in pre-colonial Africa
Types of trade - Local, long distance
Local Trade - Trade which involves people within the same general location or within the same ethnic group
Long Distance Trade - Trade between people from different locations or different ethnic groups (ex. trans-Saharan trade)
Trade items involved in the Trans-Saharan trade - Animal skins, gold, kola nuts, beeswax, ivory, salt
Reasons for the development of the Trans-Saharan trade - Availability of trade items, use of camels as transport, political stability, fertile soil in North and West Africa, leadership (Sundiata/Mansa Musa), conquest by Arabs, emergence of kingdoms, Islam, trust between Berbers and westerners
Effects of the Trans-Saharan trade - Introduction of new goods (silk, camels, beads), development of towns (Timbuktu/Jenne), spreading of Islam, development of education, states grew (Mali, Ghana, Songhai), Western Sudan lost a lot of wealth, stimulated the development of agriculture, spread of technical skills, intermarriages
Why the Trans-Saharan trade collapsed - Suspicion and mistrust among Arabs/Berbers/Africans, war in North Africa, colonialism, the triangular trade (Trans Atlantic trade), industrial revolution in Europe
Commodities from East Africa - Ivory, gold, copper, leopard skins, tortoise shells, rhinoceros horns, slaves
Tribes involved with the Long Distance Trade (LDT) in East Africa-
- Kamba, Baganda, Kikuyu, Banyoro traded along northern routes
- Arabs/Swahili along the Eastern Coast
- Nyamwezi in the central route
- Yao along the southern route
1.4.0 Development of social and political systems
1.4.1 Kinship or clan organization
Kinship (Clan) - Refers to a group of families in a tribe that share common ancestors
Clan Heads - The leader of a clan
Roles of clan heads - Controlled major means of production, provided guidance to members of the clan, arranging marriages, presiding over religious ceremonies, settle disputes, protect ethics/norms/rituals
Matrilineal Society - A society which is governed by women
Matrilineal Societies in East Africa - Kamba, Kikuyu, Makonde, Mwera
Patrilineal Society - A society which is governed by men
1.4.2 Age-set system
Age-Set System - A kind of socio-political organization which is based on age and sex. It was the dominant form to organization in pastoral societies (ex. Maasai, Nyakusa, Khoikhoi)
Example of Age-Set system - The Maasai
Children (1-8, Layoin) - Not directly involved in production
Youth (8-18) - Responsible for grazing animals and milking cattle, assisted by women
Moran (18-35) - Responsible for defending the society
Laibon (35+) - Elders in society who settle disputes and make important decisions (war, marriage)
1.4.3 Ntemiship
Ntemiship - A type of state which is characterized by being made up of separated groups. The word is derived from kutema, which means to split apart. The most well known tribe which used this system were the Nyamwezi
Mtemi - The name given to the leader who organized the activities which opened up new land and who controlled the people (ex. usukuma, unyamwezi, ukimbu, ugogo)
1.4.4 State organization
Factors for the rise of the ancient Egyptian states - The development of agriculture and pastoralism, specialization of labour, development of productive forces, war and conquest, growth of industry, growth of town

The role played by Islam in the formation or transformation of states in pre-colonial West Africa - Brought villages and cities together, villagers left indigenous religions for Islam, writing was introduced, birth of democratic Islamic rule instead of autocratic Hausa states, led to formation of Mandinka/Sokoto caliphate states, led to formation of African nationalism in West Africa
Explain the factors for the rise and decline of the Bunyoro – Kitara Kingdom. - Rise: Good leadership, good climatic conditions, agricultural production which facilitated trade, conquering other states, Decline: Conquered by other states, disunity among factions, weak army, poor leadership
Centralized western Sudanic states were mostly expanded by conquest
The Kangaba developed into the Mali Empire

Q. Elaborate six consequences of Ngoni migration into East Africa in the 19th century.

Answer:

Who were the Ngoni?

The Ngoni were Bantu-Nguni speaking people of Northern Zululand in South East Africa. They were originally Ndwandwe people under Zwides leadership. But when Shaka defeated Zwide, one part of his group, the Ngoni moved to East Africa under Zwangendaba.

In origin, the Ngoni, were close relatives of the Zulu. They were full- time warriors and cattle plunderers hence disliked by other tribes, so they forced them away. They were pushed further north and eventually reached southern Tanzania.

They were forced out of South Africa by the “Mfecane” wars led by Shaka the Zulu. They came to be known as the Ngoni having absorbed the Thonga, Shona and Cewa on their way to East Africa.

The Ngoni migration began among the Bantu peoples of South Africa, who entered into E. Africa in the 1840’s. They were the last Bantu migrants to come to East Africa. They migrated into two largest groups of the Maseko and Tuta Ngoni.

The Ngoni broke the Monomotapa Kingdom, settling respectively on the eastern side of Lake Nyasa  (Malawi) at Songea, and on Ufipa plateau.

They moved to Tanzania from Natal and Swaziland between 1820 and 1840 due to the Mfecane (time of trouble).  They are direct descendants of the Zulu.  They are currently settled in South West Tanzania around Songea town.   

The Ngoni invasion illustrates the influence of external forces on the lives of the indigenous people.   The Ngoni brought innovation and changes such as military techniques, skill and weapons.  A study of the Ngoni would enable students appreciate the current settlement patterns and way of the life of the people of Southern Tanzania.

Reasons for the Ngoni migration

1.      It was due to fear of being absorbed into the empire of tyrant Shaka.

The Ngoni migrated due to the tyrannical and dictatorial rule of Shaka, the Zulu ruler who was everything in his kingdom. His cruelty was shown when he lost his mother, and put people under severe signs of mourning. Those who refused to cry for his mother’s death were killed,so they decided to seek refuge by migrating to other areas.

2.      They moved because of external pressure from the British and the Boers in the South who were moving northwards occupying their land.

3.      It was due to over population, which was caused by the fertility of soils and reliability of rainfall between Drakensberg Mountains and the Indian Ocean.

4.      Due to overpopulation there was land shortage hence land disputes, which led to forcing them to migrate to other areas.

5.      Some owned large herds of cattle hence moved northwards looking for pasture and water for their animals. So, they wanted to look for more fertile land for grazing their cattle.

6.      It was also due to epidemic diseases such as smallpox and sleeping sickness that affected them.

7.      They could have moved because of famine and drought that led to lack of food and water.

8.      It was because of influence of men like Zwangendaba, Maputo and Zulugama who provided good leadership. This encouraged them to move on wards.

9.      They migrated because of the spirit for Adventure.(Need to see what was beyond them).

10.  The leaders wanted to take over power in the areas they defeated, which was not acceptable to Shaka forcing some groups to migrate to other areas.

11.  They were fed up with the old traditional political system, which encouraged dictatorship and therefore wanted change, which could be achieved through migration.

12.  It could also have been due to overstocking of their animals. They migrated due to their spirit of cattle rustling, i.e they had great desire to steal other people’s cattle. For example, they went on driving away and confiscating other people’s cattle during their conquest and expansionist wars.

13.  They migrated due to the increased knowledge of military tactics by the age regiments. These were powerful military forces and dedicated to professional war, which was their livelihood.  They believed that they could other territories through migration.

MOVEMENT AND SETTLEMENT OF THE NGONI INTO EAST AFRICA

===They began their movement from South – East Africa in Northern Zululand under the leadership of Zwangendaba in 1820.

===The Ngoni migration took place in the 19th century, and was the last major movement of Bantu people into East Africa.

===There were 3 groups of the Ngoni in East Africa i.e. the Ngoni Tuta, the Ngoni Gwangara and the Ngoni Maseko.

===They then crossed River Zambezi and River Limpopo and moved northwards in search of new areas.

===Later in 1835, they divided into two groups. One group under the leadership of Zwangendaba passed west of Lake Malawi and settled at UFIPA in 1840. They were attracted to this area here because of the many herds of cattle around.

===Zwagendaba led the biggest Ngoni group that entered East Africa. They crossed the Zambezi River, moved through Malawi and Zambia until they reached the Fipa plateau in around 1840’s. Zwagendaba died here in about 1845, and his followers  splint up into five sections. Three sections returned south to Zambia and Malawi, while the other two, i.e , the Tuta and Gwangara sections remained at Ufipa.

===Another group under the leadership of Induna Maputo (Maseko Ngoni) passed East of Lake Malawi and settled at Songea.  When Zwangendaba died around 1845, the Ufipa ngoni disagreed and plit in to five groups.

===Two groups remained in East Africa,i.e Tuta and Gwangara Ngoni

===Three groups moved out of East Africa that is to say, one group moved to Malawi and the two moved back to Zambia.

===The Tuta Ngoni, the smallest group left Ufipa, moved northwards fighting and clashing with the Holoholo near Lake Tanganyika. They disrupted the trade route between Tabora and Ujiji.In the 1850s they invaded the Nyamwezi capturing many and incorporating them in their ranks. They finally settled at Kahama South of Lake Victoria.

===The Gwangara Ngoni under the leadership of Zulugama moved eastwards to
Songea    where they met the Maseko Ngoni. The two groups fought and the
Maseko Ngoni were defeated and pushed out of Songea in 1860s.

===Some of the Maseko moved back to Mozambique while others moved to Kilombero valley where they became known as the Mbunga.

===Another splinter group moved to Newala, Masasi and Tunduru.

===From Songea the Ngoni raided widely, finally settling in Southern Tanzania among the Bena, Hehe and Sangu. The Ngoni migration, which started around 1820’s, had ended by the year 1860s.

WHY WERE THE NGONI SUCCESSFUL IN DEFEATING / CONQUERING THE PEOPLE OF EAST AFRICA.

===The Ngoni came in big numbers and were strong. On their way they absorbed or fought off the people they encountered, capturing young men for warriors and young women for wives.

===They had good military organization with age-regiments called “impis”. (strong army)

===The Ngoni had a large, well-trained and disciplined army. They were grouped in age-regiments which were maintained for long periods. The Ngoni did not cultivate but rather lived by plundering from others. This enabled them to have a standing army always ready for battle.
They had superior weapons such as the short stabbing spear (Assegai) and big cowhide shields, which only left a soldier’s face exposed to the enemy, protected the warriors. Instead of the long-throwing spears which had to be thrown one by one, the Ngoni adopted short-stabbing spears and clubs known as Assegai, copied from Shaka the Zulu.
                           
On the other hand their enemies used long –throwing spear. They used these for close hand to hand combat, and the warriors could be protected by large cow-hide shields which left only a warrior’s face exposed to the enemy.

===They had superior military tactics such as the cow horn method (semi-circle), which was unfamiliar in E. Africa. They fought in organized age-regiments and could attack their enemies using the cow-horn formation. They also chose clear open spaces for fighting and liked attacking their enemies by night.

===They met small and fragmented societies, which were unable to challenge their military organization. Slave trade had undermined most of the communities of Southern Tanzania.

===The Ngoni were successful due to their determination. They were determined to conquer and obtain places for settlement. This was due to the fact that they were already being chased away from their homeland, and their only alternative was to get determined and fight any people they came across.

===The East African people were caught unaware and therefore did not offer much résistance. The Ngoni were successful because the local people whom they were fighting with were so weak and lived in small groups, which could not resist/challenge the sudden and unexpected Ngoni invasions.

===Disunity among the East African people living in isolated societies, made it easy for the Ngoni to defeat them. The inhabitants were living in isolated societies which made it easy for the Ngoni to defeat them.

===The Ngoni were fully united under their commanders. They were successful because of their unity and solidarity. They mixed freely with the non-Ngoni speaking people.

===They had strong military leaders e.g. Zwangendaba, Induna and Maputo who were able to unite and command the Ngoni.

===Applied the scorched earth policy hence taking people unaware. They burnt and destroyed crops.

===They used assimilation policy, i.e. they absorbed the people they defeated. They would force the captured men from other tribes to join them and become Ngoni warriors.

===They also made themselves fearful to their enemies by wearing the skeletons of their victims.

THE NGONI MILITARY ORGANISATION

The Ngoni were a small group of people but were able to make their presence and authority fell by the local people because of their leadership, outstanding military efficiency and their capacity to absorb conquered people into their armies.

Militarily the Ngoni were organized in large standing armies and age regiments; People of the same age trained together, which brought unity and efficiency.

They used the short- stabbing spears called assegai rather than the long- throwing spears which meant that the warriors could attack more effectively at a close range.

They used large cowhide shields, which could not be easily penetrated by spears.

They used the cow horn method of surrounding an enemy and attacking from all sides giving the enemy little chance to escape.

They often fought on their feet and in open areas for easy movement.

They moved in large numbers which helped them to outnumber their enemies who were often caught unaware

They used to absorb and assimilate all conquered people.  

EFFECTS OF NGONI INVASIONS IN E. AFRICA

Positive effects

===The Ngoni invasion led to the rise of outstanding leaders to prominence. These included Mirambo, Nyungu ya Mawe and Mkwawa, who used the Ngoni military tactics to build their states.

===Many small Ntemi chiefdoms came together (united) and formed larger political units under strong leaders to fight the Ngoni e.g. Sangu and Hehe. (re-organization)

===There was formation of new societies (tribes) like the Mbunga.

===The Hehe under Mkwawa were able to resist the Germans.

===There was spread of Ngoni customs and culture. e.g Initiation ceremonies where girls were taught sex education and circumcision.

===It led to formation of a larger Ngoni society in E.Africa as they absorbed many people.

===It led to formation of some societies by those who used Ngoni tactics e.g. Nyamwezi under Mirambo.

===It led to introduction of new weapons e.g. Assegai, cowhides and shields.

===From the Ngoni invasion, people learnt how to get organized from smaller disorganized societies, to well organized bigger political systems. These were to be under the control and leadership of organized, strong and efficient rulers such as the Sangu chief, the Hehe, e.t.c.

===There were intermarriages between the Ngoni and Nyamwezi,which subsequently led to improved relationships between the invaders and indigenous peoples, and an increase in population.

Negative effects

===They caused wide spread loss of lives leading to depopulation in some areas where they got warriors this was especially in southern Tanzania. This was due to the killing of people in the expansionist wars, e.g., the Mariti remnants of Rugarugas killed so many people.

===They introduced military organization and tactics to such an extent that the Ngoni lost their superiority e.g. Holoholo were able to defeat the Tuta Ngoni when they re- attacked them.

===Their movement led to widespread devastation, depopulation and displacement of people.

===They destroyed the economy of the people of southern Tanzania when they grabbed their cattle. (The Ngoni were cattle plunderers). The Ngoni invasion led to poverty, i.e., it led to the creation of a class of poor people as their property continued to be destroyed and persistently looted during the wars.

===The Ngoni led to formation of refugees who lived by plundering and killing i.e. the Mariti and Rugaruga who were later used by ambitious men like Mirambo, Nyunguyamawe to make their empires.

===The Tuta Ngoni, on their movement northwards, disrupted the trade particularly between Tabora and Ujiji.

===There was loss of peoples’ language, culture and customs (Detribalisation of people). i.e., The raids caused many people to become homeless and tribe less. This led to people losing their identity. In addition, such groups became terrorists who lived by war, plunder, and hunting for ivory. They included the “ Ruga-ruga” who began hiring their services as mercenaries to any chief willing to pay them.

===Ngoni disturbance disrupted normal cultivation leading to famine. There was widespread famine due to the scotched-earth policy of fighting. This included destroying crops and houses by burning. Under such circumstances, crops could neither be planted nor harvested, and people were forced to abandon farming.

===They led to insecurity since the new weapons and military tactics increased warfare and aggression in East Africa.

===The Ngoni intensified slave trade in East Africa, this was because they displaced people from their homes and so making it easy for slave raiders to get them and sell them.

===It led to increased war-fare among the African societies, including those areas that had been peaceful before.

Conclusion:

At the end of the 19th century, Germany colonised Tanganyika. The Ngoni were one of the groups that fought hard against the Germans. But in 1907 all the Ngoni chiefs were hanged for fighting. Today the Ngoni have married into the tribes they conquered. It is now difficult to know who is Ngoni and who is not. But their traditions and way of life continue.