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Friday, April 11, 2014

HOW TO GET HIGHER MARKS IN EXAMS BY. MWL. JAPHET MASATU

HOW TO GET HIGHER MARKS IN MARKS IN EXAMS.

INTRODUCTION.

Absorbing Knowledge Efficiently Studying Like a Pro Preparing Your Body Acing the Test

Have you got an important test coming up that you really want to ace? Do you generally want to improve your grades? There are a number of tricks and practices which can significantly improve your chances of scoring high on a test. This article will help you in studying, analyzing and solving exam questions, so read on!

Method 1 of 4: Absorbing Knowledge Efficiently

1
Pay attention in your classes. The best thing you can do to raise your test scores is to pay attention when you're supposed to be learning the material: in class! Letting your mind wander or not showing up at all are both likely to make you miss out on key information that will later appear on tests.
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2
Take good notes. This is important if you want to have an easier time studying later. Not only will writing the information down as you learn it help you in absorbing the information and paying attention, but you'll have a reference for when you go to study later.
3
Do your homework. Homework, such as assignments and at-home reading are where you will find the rest of the information that will be on tests, so doing this homework is important. Schedule time and set aside a quiet place just for homework to help beat the procrastination blues.
4
Use mnemonics and other tricks. Various memory tricks really can be useful for remembering certain things like numbers, categories, and lists. Just make sure that you learn them correctly and don't mix them up!
- Mnemonics are phrases which can help you remember the order of certain things. For example, "Katy Perry Came Over For Great Songs" is a great way to remember the biological classifications (Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species).
- Another memory trick is if you have to remember a string of numbers. Instead of trying to remember 2537610925, for example, break it up like a phone number: 253-761-0925. You can break up dates this way too. 14 Oct 1066 (the Battle of Hastings) can become a locker combination: 14-10-66.
5
Do practice tests. Ask your teacher or go online and print a few practice tests. Taking a practice test will help you figure out how much information you actually know vs how much information you think you know. Knowing your weak spots before a test is crucial!

Method 2 of 4: Studying Like a Pro

1
Study frequently. Studying hard for only a few hours the night before the test isn't going to help ensure perfect scores. If you really want to ace those exams, study old and new material every day, or at least several times a week. This will make test-taking a breeze.
- Take study breaks. When you study, make sure you take a 5-10 minute break after every 30 minutes of study. This will help keep your brain from getting overloaded and give it more time to absorb the information.
- On study breaks, try not to fill your brain with more information, even if that information is more about your favourite celebrity's latest concert rather than Winston Churchill's foreign policy.
2
Study according to your learning style. You may know that different people have different learning styles. Some people are visual learners, some people prefer sound, some need physical motion, and so on. Know how you learn best and work that into how you study.
- For example, if you learn better by physically doing things, try walking around while you study. If you learn better with sounds associated with the information, listen to music while you study. If you're a visual learner, make a chart of the information you have to know.
3
Take advantage of sense memory. Your brain is pretty good at associating smells or sounds with ideas or memories. You should take advantage of this! While you're studying, wear some unusual cologne or perfume (with a smell you don't usually encounter) and then expose yourself to that smell again right before or during a test.
4
Listen to music. Your teacher probably won't let you have headphones during a test, but you should at least listen to music, specifically classical music, right before taking a test.^[1] Studies have proven that exposure to certain types of music right before rigorous mental activity can really help, by waking up your brain and increasing your awareness.

Method 3 of 4: Preparing Your Body

1
Eat right. The most important thing is to eat, full stop. Being hungry during a test will distract you and make you tired. Don't eat too soon before a test though, as some foods can make you tired. Instead, make sure you get a meal filled with lean protein before you have to take a test.
- Eating healthy will generally boost brain performance too, so make sure you're always eating a healthy diet to help you learn all through school.
2
Sleep well. If you don't sleep you won't be able to focus when the pressure's on! Make sure to go to bed early the night before a test, rather than staying up all night to study. Your brain won't be able to hold on to all that crammed information anyway.
3
Have all the necessary supplies. Go to your test with all of the calculators, pens, pencils, blank paper, and other supplies you might need. Not having these things could mean you'll have a much harder time!
4
Drink lots of water. Getting dehydrated during a test can be distracting and reduce your ability to think clearly. Stay hydrated before your test and bring a bottle of water with you to the test as well.
5
Don't do anything different. If you aren't used to drinking coffee, now is a bad time to start. Try not to do anything different in your basic routine the day of or the night before the test. This can really throw you off.

Method 4 of 4: Acing the Test

1
Write important things down first. As soon as the test starts, write down all formulas or other important information on some scratch paper before you start going through the questions. This will help keep you from blanking when you need that information later.
2
Do the problems you know first. Always do the fast, easy problems to which you know the answer first. This will help make sure that you get as much of the test done as possible. If you get stuck, just move on to the next problem that you can answer quickly.
3
Cross out the wrong answers. Once you've answered the questions you know, move on to the ones you're not sure about. When you're dealing with multiple choice questions, eliminating answers that you know are impossible or silly will help you better decide between the possible options.
4
Look for clues in the other questions. Sometimes the answer to a question can be contained within or hinted at in another question on the test. Look at other answers or questions to help jog your memory.
5
Never leave questions blank. Unless you're docked for incorrect answers, never just leave a question blank. Especially if it's multiple choice; you'll at least have a 25% chance of getting the right answer.
- As mentioned above, this is where eliminating wrong answers will come in handy.
6
Pace yourself. This is important! Always keep track of how much time you have and try to use your time wisely. You can always go back to check or improve your answers later!
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Tips

Never fret over lost marks in previous exams and get depressed. Instead, take a deep breath whenever you think about it, be optimistic and study well for upcoming exams. This will help you to do well in your exams.
A good timetable will help you. You may organize it in such a way that a long/hard subject takes more space than a short/easy subject. Remember, however, that all subjects should be studied.
Studying while containing fear inside yourself is a waste. Get rid of fear and any other possible bad feelings before studying.
Make notes while studying. Write a synopsis for your subject if you are studying it for the first time/ in the beginning of the school year. This will help you in the future examinations by allowing you to remember the contents of your subjects.
Studying while having something in mind that you want to do is a waste of time. Do everything you want first then study; as your brain will not beg you to stop studying. However, if you have nothing in mind, then don't play (for example) before studying - finish your job towards school and then enjoy in the rest of the day.
Don't be disappointed with bad previous results.
Study in a silent place, so that your mind won't be distracted from what you're studying.
There is no shortcut to success. This is the first thing you should remember. For this reason, you have to make a great deal of effort.
Focus. When studying for your exam, be somewhere where there are no distractions. Also, make sure you have eaten and have had plenty of sleep, otherwise you could become tired and unfocused easily. Have no distracting things around you, unless they can be used as inspiration for helping you study (such as a cork board full of notes made throughout the year).
Make a list of all the things you need to do to study for each subject, and how long you think it will take you. Use this information to make up a study timetable. Be certain that you have given yourself all the time you think you need, plus a little extra per subject, in your study plan. Also make sure your study plan has enough space in it, so if something comes up one day, you can shuffle around your plan so that you don't lose study time.

Get rid of any unnecessary 'time wasting mechanisms' while studying. This includes TV, computer (only if you need Internet access), mobile phones, tablet, or even your siblings!
When you are preparing for a test or exam- forget about the actual test or a exam and just know that what you are doing exactly.
Attempt the questions which you find easy first and then the ones that seem harder.
Write clearly and be direct to the point. Don't write any irrelevant information. Don't wrap the right answer in a wrong answer. Write in full sentences. Don't expect the examiner to link your sentences, fill in the space or any other thing. Think that the examiner is your little brother, and you are explaining to him. Will he understand anything by just telling him the keywords? No!
Each subject has a unique way of preparing, studying and answering its questions. Some competitive exams (university exams, for example) need a long and complex preparation, while your school exams may need preparation of one or two weeks.
Study in phases. Each phase should not exceed 40 minutes in time. Take a break after each phase (up to 20 minutes).

Warnings

Never try to cheat. You are very likely to get caught, which would result in a zero. Be confident. Believe in yourself. If you have the attitude to do well, then you will!

HUMAN RIGHTS ----- CIVICS FORM ONE BY.

Saturday, April 5, 2014

HISTORY OF TANZANIA --- CIVICS FORM ONE BY. MWL. JAPHET MASATU.

HISTORY OF TANZANIA ---CIVICS FORM ONE.

INTRODUCTION.

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History of Tanzania
Part of a series on the

Timeline
History of Zanzibar
Colonial period
Scramble for Africa
German East Africa
Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty
Maji Maji Rebellion
East African Campaign
British East Africa
Modern history
Zanzibar Revolution
Tanganyika
Ujamaa
Tanzania portal
v t e

The East African nation of Tanzania dates formally from 1964, when it was formed out of the union of the much larger mainland territory of Tanganyika and the coastal archipelago of Zanzibar. The former was a colony and part of German East Africa from the 1880s to 1919, when, under the League of Nations, it became a British mandate until independence in 1961. It served as a military outpost during World War II, providing financial help, munitions, and soldiers. Zanzibar was settled as a trading hub, subsequently controlled by the Portuguese, the Sultanate of Oman, and then as a British protectorate by the end of the nineteenth century. Julius Nyerere, independence leader and "baba wa taifa for Tanganyika" (father of the Tanganyika nation), ruled the country for decades, assisted by Abeid Amaan Karume, the Zanzibar Father of Nation. Following Nyerere's retirement in 1985, various political and economic reforms began. The successor of Mwalimu Nyerere was President Ali Hassan Mwinyi

Prehistory

Tanzania is home to some of the oldest human settlements unearthed by archaeologists, including stone tools and fossils of hominids found in and around Olduvai Gorge in northern Tanzania, an area often referred to as "The Cradle of Mankind". Acheulian stone tools were found there by Louis Leakey in 1931, after he had correctly identified the rocks brought back by Hans Reck to Germany from his 1913 Olduvai expedition as stone tools, Tanzania is considered as a place where the first human being started to live that is to say Tanzania is a place were early human evolution startedOlduvai Gorge . More importantly in 1931 Louis Leakey discovered older more primitive stone tools in Olduvai Gorge—these were the first examples of the oldest human technology ever discovered in Africa, subsequently known throughout the world as Oldowan after Olduvai Gorge.^[1] The first hominid skull in Olduvai Gorge was discovered by Mary Leakey in 1959, and named Zinj or Nutcracker Man, the first example of Paranthropus boisei, and is thought to be over 1.8 million years old. Other finds including Homo Habilis fossils were subsequently made. At nearby Laetoli the oldest known hominid footprints, the Laetoli footprints, were discovered by Mary Leakey in 1978, and estimated to be about 3.6 million years old and probably made by Australopithecus afarensis.^[2] The oldest hominid fossils ever discovered in Tanzania also come from Laetoli and are the 3.6 to 3.8 million year old remains of Australopithecus afarensis—Louis Leakey had found what he thought was a baboon tooth at Laetoli in 1935 (which was not identified as afarensis until 1979), a fragment of hominid jaw with three teeth was found there by Kohl-Larsen in 1938–39, and in 1974–75 Mary Leakey recovered 42 teeth and several jawbones from the site.^[3]
Reaching back about 10,000 years, Tanzania is believed to have been populated by hunter-gatherer communities, probably Khoisan speaking people. Between three and six thousand years ago, they were joined by Cushitic-speaking people who came from the north, into which the Khoisan peoples were slowly absorbed. Cushitic peoples introduced basic techniques of agriculture, food production, and later, cattle farming.^[4]
About 2000 years ago, Bantu-speaking people began to arrive from western Africa in a series of migrations. These groups brought and developed ironworking skills and new ideas of social and political organization. They absorbed many of the Cushitic peoples who had preceded them, as well as most of the remaining Khoisan-speaking inhabitants. Later, Nilotic pastoralists arrived, and continued to immigrate into the area through to the 18th century.^[4]^[5]
One of Tanzania's most important archeological sites is Engaruka in the Great Rift Valley which includes an irrigation and cultivation system.

Early coastal history

Travellers and merchants from the Persian Gulf and Western India have visited the East African coast since early in the first millennium CE. Greek texts such as the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and Ptolemy's Geography list a string of market places (emporia) along the coast. Finds of Roman-era coins along the coast confirm the existence of trade, and Ptolomey's Geography refers to a town of Rhapta as "metropolis" of a political entity called Azania. Archaeologists have not yet succeeded in identifying the location of Rhapta, though many believe it lies deeply buried in the silt of the delta of the Rufiji River. A long documentary silence follows these ancient texts, and it is not until Arab geographical treatises were written about the coast that our information resumes.
Remains of those towns' material culture demonstrate that they arose from indigenous roots, not from foreign settlement. And the language that was spoken in them, Swahili (now Tanzania's national language), is a member of the Bantu language family that spread from the northern Kenya coast well before significant Arab presence was felt in the region. By the beginning of the second millennium CE the Swahili towns conducted a thriving trade that linked Africans in the interior with trade partners throughout the Indian Ocean. From c. 1200 to 1500 CE, the town of Kilwa, on Tanzania's southern coast, was perhaps the wealthiest and most powerful of these towns, presiding over what some scholars consider the "golden age" of Swahili civilization. In the early 14th century, Ibn Battuta, a Berber traveller from North Africa, visited Kilwa and proclaimed it one of the best cities in the world. Islam was practised on the Swahili coast as early as the eighth or ninth century CE.^[6]
In 1498, Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama became the first known European to reach the East African coast; he stayed for 32 days.^[7] In 1505 the Portuguese captured the island of Zanzibar.^[8] Portuguese control lasted until the early 18th century, when Arabs from Oman established a foothold in the region. Assisted by Omani Arabs, the indigenous coastal dwellers succeeded in driving the Portuguese from the area north of the Ruvuma River by the early 18th century. Claiming the coastal strip, Omani Sultan Seyyid Said moved his capital to Zanzibar City in 1840.^[8] He focused on the island and developed trade routes that stretched as far as Lake Tanganyika and Central Africa. During this time, Zanzibar became the centre for the Arab slave trade. Due to the Arab and Persian domination at this later time, many Europeans misconstrued the nature of Swahili civilization as a product of Arab colonization. However, this misunderstanding has begun to dissipate over the past 40 years as Swahili civilization is becoming recognized as principally African in origin.^{[citation needed]}

Tanganyika (1815–1890)

Tanganyika on a geographical and political entity did not take shape before the period of High Imperialism; its name only came into use after German East Africa was transferred to the United Kingdom as a mandate by the League of Nations in 1920. What is referred to here, therefore, is the history of the region that was to become Tanzania. A part of the Great Lakes region, namely the western shore of Lake Victoria consisted of many small kingdoms, most notably Karagwe and Buzinza, which were dominated by their more powerful neighbors Rwanda, Burundi, and Buganda.
European exploration of the interior began in the mid-19th century. In 1848 the German missionary Johannes Rebmann became the first European to see Mount Kilimanjaro.^[9] British explorers Richard Burton and John Speke crossed the interior to Lake Tanganyika in June 1857.^[10] In January 1866 the Scottish explorer and missionary David Livingstone, who crusaded against the slave trade, went to Zanzibar, from where he set out to seek the source of the Nile, and established his last mission at Ujiji on the shores of Lake Tanganyika. After having lost contact with the outside world for years, he was "found" there on November 10, 1871. Henry Morton Stanley, who had been sent in a publicity stunt to find him by the New York Herald newspaper, greeted him with the now famous words "Dr Livingstone, I presume?" In 1877 the first of a series of Belgian expeditions arrived on Zanzibar. In the course of these expeditions, in 1879 a station was founded in Kigoma on the eastern bank of Lake Tanganyika, soon to be followed by the station of Mpala on the opposite western bank. Both stations were founded in the name of the Comite D'Etudes Du Haut Congo, a predecessor organization of the Congo Free State. German colonial interests were first advanced in 1884. Karl Peters, who formed the Society for German Colonization, concluded a series of treaties by which tribal chiefs in the interior accepted German "protection." Prince Otto von Bismarck's government backed Peters in the subsequent establishment of the German East Africa Company.
At the Berlin Conference of 1885, the fact that Kigoma had been established and supplied from Zanzibar and Bagamoyo led to the inclusion of East Africa into the territory of the Conventional Basin of the Congo, to Belgium's advantage. At the table in Berlin, contrary to widespread perception, Africa was not partitioned; rather, rules were established among the colonial powers and prospective colonial powers as how to proceed in the establishment of colonies and protectorates. While the Belgian interest soon concentrated on the Congo River, the British and Germans focused on Eastern Africa and in 1886 partitioned continental East Africa between themselves; the Sultanate of Zanzibar, now reduced to the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba, remained independent, for the moment. The Congo Free State was eventually to give up its claim on Kigoma (its oldest station in Central Africa) and on any territory to the east of Lake Tanganyika, to Germany.

German East Africa and the Maji Maji Resistance

Main articles: German East Africa and Maji Maji

This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2013)

All resistance to the Germans in the interior ceased and they could now set out to organize German East Africa. They continued brutally to exercise their authority with disregard and contempt for existing local structures and traditions. While the German colonial administration brought cash crops, railroads, and roads to Tanganyika, European rule provoked African resistance. Between 1891 and 1894, the Hehe—led by Chief Mkwawa—resisted German expansion, but were eventually defeated. After a period of guerrilla warfare, Mkwawa was cornered and committed suicide in 1898.
Widespread discontent re-emerged, and in 1902 a movement against forced labour for a cotton scheme rejected by the local population started along the Rufiji River. The tension reached a breaking point in July 1905 when the Matumbi of Nandete led by Kinjikitile Ngwale revolted against the local administrators (akida) and suddenly the revolt grew wider from Dar Es Salaam to the Uluguru Mountains, the Kilombero Valley, the Mahenge and Makonde Plateaux, the Ruvuma in the southernmost part and Kilwa, Songea, Masasi, and from Kilosa to Iringa down to the eastern shores of Lake Nyasa. The resistance culminated in the Maji Maji Resistance of 1905–1907. The resistance, which temporarily united a number of southern tribes ended only after an estimated 120,000 Africans had died from fighting or starvation. Research has shown that traditional hostilities played a large part in the resistance.^{[citation needed]}
Germans had occupied the area since 1897 and totally altered many aspects of everyday life. They were actively supported by the missionaries who tried to destroy all signs of indigenous beliefs, notably by razing the 'mahoka' huts where the local population worshiped their ancestors' spirits and by ridiculing their rites, dances and other ceremonies. This would not be forgotten or forgiven; the first battle which broke out at Uwereka in September 1905 under the Governorship of Count Gustav Adolf von Götzen turned instantly into an all-out war with indiscriminate murders and massacres perpetrated by all sides against farmers, settlers, missionaries, planters, villages, indigenous people and peasants. Known as the Maji-Maji war with the main brunt borne by the Ngoni people, this was a merciless rebellion and by far the bloodiest in Tanganyika.

War with Germany in East Africa

Main article: East African Campaign (World War I)

Battle of Tanga, fought between the British and Germans during World War I

During World War I, an invasion attempt by the British was thwarted by German General Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck at the Battle of Tanga, who then mounted a drawn out guerrilla warfare campaign against the British.
At the outbreak of the First World War the German authorities regarded the position of their premier Colony with considerable equanimity although it was inevitably cut off from outside communication. It had been organized against any attack that could be made without those extensive preparations. For the first year of hostilities the Germans were strong enough to carry the war into their neighbours' territories and repeatedly attacked the railway and other points in British East Africa. However, British rule had begun with the occupation of the island of Mafia by the Royal Navy in 1914.
The forces at the disposal of the German Command may never be accurately known. Lieutenant-General Jan Smuts at one time estimated them at 2,000 Germans and 16,000 Askaris, with 60 guns and 80 machine guns, but this should prove to be below the mark. The white adult male population in 1913 numbered over 3,500 (exclusive of garrison), a large proportion of these would be available for military duties. The native population of over 7,000,000 formed a reservoir of man-power from which a force might be drawn limited only by the supply of officers and equipment. There is no reason to doubt that the Germans made the best of this material during the long interval of nearly eighteen months which separated the outbreak of war from the invasion in force of their territory.^{[citation needed]}
In his final despatch of May 1919, General Jacob van Deventer placed the German forces at the commencement of 1916 at 2,700 whites and 12,000 blacks. Lord Cranford, in his foreword to Captain Angus Buchanan's book on the war, writes, "At his strongest von Lettow probably mustered 25,000 to 30,000 rifles, all fighting troops", with 70 machine guns and 40 guns. After eighteen months of continuous fighting, General van Deventer estimated the enemy's forces at 8,000 to 9,000 men.^{[citation needed]}
Cut-off from Germany by the Royal Navy Von Lettow made a virtue of necessity and conducted a masterly guerilla campaign, living off the land and moving swiftly to repeatedly surprise the British. The British, who deployed large numbers of Indian Army troops under Smuts, faced difficult logistic problems supplying their pursuing army deep in the interior, which they attempted to overcome by the formation of a large Carrier Corps of native porters.
Another point bearing on the war and duly emphasized by General Smuts in his lecture before the Royal Geographic Society (January 1918), was the extraordinary strength of the German frontier. The coastline offered few suitable points for landing and was backed by an unhealthy swamp belt. On the west the line of lakes and mountains proved so impenetrable that the Belgian forces from the Congo had, in the first instance, to be moved through Uganda. On the south the Ruvuma River was only fordable on its upper reaches. And the northern frontier was the most difficult of all. Only one practicable pass about five miles (8 km) wide offered between the Pare Mountains and Kilimanjaro, and here the German forces, amid swamps and forests, had been digging themselves in for eighteen months.
The Honorable H. Burton, speaking in London in August 1918 said, "Nothing struck our commanders in the East African field so much as the thorough, methodical and determined training of the German native levies previous to the war."
The force which evacuated the Colony in December 1917, was estimated at the time at 320 white and 2,500 black troops; 1,618 Germans were killed or captured in the last six months of 1917, 155 whites and 1,168 Askaris surrendered at the close of hostilities.
A skillful and remarkably successful guerrilla campaign waged by the German commander Paul Emil von Lettow-Vorbeck kept the war in Tanganyika going for the entire length of the First World War. A scorched earth policy and the requisition of buildings meant a complete collapse of the Government's education system, though some mission schools managed to retain a semblance of instruction. Unlike the Belgian, British, French and Portuguese colonial masters in central Africa, Germany had developed an educational program for her Africans that involved elementary, secondary and vocational schools. "Instructor qualifications, curricula, textbooks, teaching materials, all met standards unmatched anywhere in tropical Africa."^[11] In 1924, ten years after the beginning of the First World War and six years into British rule, the visiting American Phelps-Stokes Commission reported: In regards to schools, the Germans have accomplished marvels. Some time must elapse before education attains the standard it had reached under the Germans.^[11] But by 1920, the Education Department consisted of 1 officer and 2 clerks with a budget equal to 1% of the country's revenue—less than the amount appropriated for the maintenance of Government House.

British East Africa

Main article: British East Africa

The first Administrator was Sir Horace Archer Byatt CMG. He embarked it on its course as an African country, improved its health and agriculture and made slavery illegal. He also did much for its economy. In Dar-es-Salaam you can see the house he rebuilt – now lived in by the President. The native troops went back quietly to their villages and the few Germans that remained were reported as settling down under the new administration.

1920s: border resolution

In 1920, by the Tanganyika Order in Council, 1920, the Office of Governor and Commander-in-Chief of the Territory was constituted. The colony was renamed Tanganyika Territory in 1920. In 1921 the Belgians transferred the Kigoma district, which they had administered since the occupation, to British administration. The United Kingdom and Belgium signed an agreement regarding the border between Tanganyika and Ruanda-Urundi in 1924. The administration of the Territory continued to be carried out under the terms of the mandate until its transfer to the Trusteeship System under the Charter of the United Nations by the Trusteeship Agreement of December 13, 1946.

1926: Africanisation policy

British policy was to rule indirectly through African leaders. In 1926, a Legislative Council was established, which was to advise the governor. The British administration took measures to revive African institutions by encouraging limited local rule, and authorized the formation in 1922 of political clubs such as the Tanganyika Territory African Civil Service Association. In 1926 some African members were unofficially admitted into the Legislative Council and in 1929 the Association became the Tanganyika African Association which would constitute the core of the nascent nationalist movement. In 1945 the first Africans were effectively appointed to the Governor's Legislative Council.

Late 1920s: railway development

In 1928 the railway line Tabora-Mwanga was opened to traffic, the line from Moshi to Arusha in 1929. In 1919 the population was estimated at 3,500,000.

1931 census

In 1931 a census established the population of Tanganyika at 5,022,640 natives, in addition to 32,398 Asians and 8,228 Europeans.

Health and education initiatives

Under British rule, efforts were undertaken to fight the Tsetse fly (a carrier of sleeping sickness), and to fight malaria and bilharziasis; more hospitals were built. In 1926, the Colonial administration provided subsidies to schools run by missionaries, and at the same time established its authority to exercise supervision and to establish guidelines. Yet in 1935, the education budget for the entire country of Tanganyika amounted to only (US) $290,000, although it is unclear how much this represented at the time in terms of purchasing power parity. In 1933, Sir Horace Hector Hearne was appointed as Puisne Judge, Tanganyika Territory, and acted as Chief Justice of Tanganyika in 1935 and 1936. He held the post until 1936/1937 when he went on to be a similar job in Ceylon.

1943: 100,000-acre (405 km²) Tanganyika wheat scheme

The British Government decided to develop wheat growing to help feed a war-ravaged and severely rationed Britain and eventually Europe at the hoped-for Allied victory at the end of the Second World War. An American farmer in Tanganyika, Freddie Smith, was in charge, and David Gordon Hines was the accountant responsible for the finances. The scheme had 50,000 acres (202 km²) on the Ardai plains just outside Arusha; 25,000 acres (101 km²) on Mount Kilimanjaro; and 25,000 acres (101 km²) towards Ngorongoro to the west. All the machinery was lend/lease from the USA, including 30 tractors, 30 ploughs, and 30 harrows. There were western agricultural and engineering managers. Most of the workers were Italian prisoners of war from Somalia and Ethiopia: excellent, skilled engineers and mechanics. The Ardai plains were too arid to be successful, but there were good crops in the Kilimanjaro and Ngorongoro areas.^[12]

Groundnut scheme

The time from 1946 to 1951 saw the Tanganyika groundnut scheme.

1940s and 1950s: farming co-operatives

After the 2nd World War, British colonial policy in the 1940s and 1950s encouraged the development of farming co-operatives to partially convert subsistence farmers to cash husbandry. Before co-operatives, the farmers sold their produce to Indian traders at poor prices. The responsible colonial officer David Gordon Hines from 1947 to 1959 achieved the vast expansion of the co-operatives: by the early 1950s, there were over 400 co-operatives nationally.^[13] Co-operative offices throughout the country showed the members how to elect committees, keep their books, and market produce. Co-operatives formed "unions" for their areas and developed cotton gineries, coffee factories, and tobacco dryers. A major success for Tanzania was the Moshi coffee auctions that attracted international buyers after the annual Nairobi auctions.^[12]

No Mau Mau violence

In the early 1950s the Mau Mau movement of violent resistance to British rule was active in neighbouring Kenya. The Tanganyika government expected the violence to spread to Tanganyika, especially in the north where the Wa-Chagga live—but violence did not spread there from Kenya.^[12]

1940s–1950s transition to self government

After World War II, Tanganyika became a United Nations trust territory under British control. Subsequent years witnessed Tanganyika moving gradually toward self-government and independence. In 1954, Julius Nyerere, the future leader of Tanzania, who was then a school teacher and one of only two Tanganyikans educated abroad at the university level, organized a political party—the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU). On 29 March 1961 Britain agreed that Tanganyika would become an independent state on 28 December 1961.

Zanzibar

Main article: History of Zanzibar

Zanzibar today refers to the island of that name, also known as Unguja, and the neighboring island of Pemba. Both islands fell under Portuguese domination in the 16th and early 17th centuries but were retaken by Omani Arabs in the early 18th century. The height of Arab rule came during the reign of Sultan Seyyid Said, who moved his capital from Muscat to Zanzibar, established a ruling Arab elite, and encouraged the development of clove plantations, using the island's slave labor. Zanzibar and Pemba were world famous for their trade in spices and became known as the Spice Islands; in the early 20th century, they produced approximately 90% of the world's supply of cloves. Zanzibar was also a major transit point in the East African and Indian Ocean slave trade. (See Arab slave trade.) Zanzibar attracted ships from as far away as the United States, which established a consulate in 1833. The United Kingdom's early interest in Zanzibar was motivated by both commerce and the determination to end the slave trade. In 1822, the British signed the first of a series of treaties with Sultan Said to curb this trade, but not until 1876 was the sale of slaves finally prohibited. The Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty of 1890 made Zanzibar and Pemba a British protectorate, and the Caprivi Strip in Namibia became a German protectorate. British rule through a Sultan remained largely unchanged from the late 19th century until 1957, when elections were held for a largely advisory Legislative Council.

Independence and Union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar

Julius Nyerere, from the collection of The National Archives.

In 1954, Julius Nyerere, a school teacher who was then one of only two Tanganyikans educated to university level, organized a political party—the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU). On December 9, 1961, Tanganika became an independent Commonwealth realm, and Nyerere became Prime Minister, under a new constitution. On December 9, 1962, a republican constitution was implemented with Mwalimu Julius Kambarage Nyerere as Tanganyika's first president.
Zanzibar received its independence from the United Kingdom on December 10, 1963, as a constitutional monarchy under the Sultan. On January 12, 1964, the African majority revolted against the sultan and a new government was formed with the ASP leader, Abeid Karume, as President of Zanzibar and Chairman of the Revolutionary Council.
In the first few days, between 5,000 and 15,000 Arabs and Asians were murdered, women were raped and their homes burned. Within a few weeks, a fifth of the population had died or fled.^[14]
It was at this time that the Tanganyika army revolted and Britain was asked by Julius Nyerere to send in troops. Royal Marines Commandos were sent by air from England via Nairobi and 40 Commando came ashore from the aircraft carrier HMS Bulwark. Several months were spent with Commandos touring the country disarming military outposts. When the successful operation ended, the Royal Marines left to be replaced by Canadian troops.
On April 26, 1964, Tanganyika united with Zanzibar to form the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar. The country was renamed the United Republic of Tanzania on October 29 of that year. The name Tanzania is a blend of Tanganyika and Zanzibar and previously had no significance. Under the terms of this union, the Zanzibar Government retains considerable local autonomy.

Recent history

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To form a sole ruling party in both parts of the union, Julius Nyerere merged TANU with the Zanzibar ruling party, the Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP) of Zanzibar to form the CCM (Chama cha Mapinduzi-CCM Revolutionary Party), on February 5, 1977. The merger was reinforced by principles enunciated in the 1982 union constitution and reaffirmed in the constitution of 1984.
Nyerere believed multiple political parties, in a nation with hundreds of ethnic groups, were a threat to national unity and therefore sought ways to ensure a one party system.^[15] In a post-colonial and unstable social environment, Nyerere 'well aware of the divisiveness of ethnic chauvinism moved to excise tribalism from national politics' (Locatelli & Nugent, 2009: 252).^[16] To further his aim for national unity Nyerere established Kiswahili as the national language.^[17]
Nyerere used the Preventive Detention Act first to suppress trade unions and then to lock up any opponents when he wanted. People disappeared and total numbers were never published, but victims are estimated at thousands. International human rights organizations such as Amnesty International campaigned against repression in Tanzania.^[18]
Nyerere introduced African socialism, or Ujamaa, literal meaning 'family-hood'. Nyerere's government had made Ujamaa the philosophy that would guide Tanzania's national development; 'the government deliberately de-emphasized urban areas to deconcentrate and ruralize industrial growth (Darkoh, 1994). the main urban area of Tanzania, Dar es Salaam, was for several long decades the main victim of this de-emphasis, largely because it 'remained for Nyerere a reminder of a colonial legacy (Myers, 2011: 44)^[19]
Scope of the state expanded rapidly into virtually every sector. In 1967, nationalizations transformed the government into the largest employer in the country. It was involved from everything from retailing to import-export trade and even baking. This created an environment ripe for corruption.^[20]
Cumbersome bureaucratic procedures multiplied and excessive tax rates set by officials further damaged the economy.^[20] Enormous amounts of public funds were misappropriated and put to unproductive use.^[20] Purchasing power declined at an unprecedented rate and even essential commodities became unavailable.^[20] A system of permits (vibali) allowed officials to collect huge bribes in exchange for the vibali.^[20]
A foundation for systemic corruption had been laid.^[20] Officials became widely known as Wabenzi ("people of the Benz").
Nyerere's Tanzania had a close relationship with the People's Republic of China. In 1979 Tanzania declared war on Uganda after the Soviet-backed Uganda invaded and tried to annex the northern Tanzanian province of Kagera. Tanzania not only expelled Ugandan forces, but, enlisting the country's population of Ugandan exiles, also invaded Uganda itself. On April 11, 1979, Idi Amin was forced to quit the capital, Kampala, ending the Uganda-Tanzania War.^[21] The Tanzanian army took the city with the help of the Ugandan and Rwandan guerrillas. Amin fled into exile. [1] By the mid-1979 corruption reached epidemic proportions as the economy collapsed.^[20]
In October 1985 Nyerere handed over power to Ali Hassan Mwinyi, but retained control of the ruling party, Chama cha Mapinduzi (CCM), as Chairman until 1990, when he handed that responsibility to Mwinyi. In 1990 a coalition of ethnic and cultural groups of Zanzibar demanded a referendum on independence. They declared that the merger with the mainland Tanzania, based on the now dead ideology of socialism, had transformed Zanzibar from a bustling economic power to a poor, neglected appendage.^[14] Their demands were neglected.
However, the ruling party comfortably won the elections amid widespread irregularities^[14] and its candidate Benjamin William Mkapa was subsequently sworn in as the new president of Tanzania in the country's ever multi-party election on 23 November 1995.^[22]^[23] Contested elections in late 2000 led to a massacre in Zanzibar in January 2001, with the government shooting into crowds of protesters, killing 35 and injuring 600.^[24] In December 2005, Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete was elected the 4th president for a five-year term.
One of the deadly 1998 U.S. embassy bombings occurred in Dar Es Salaam; the other was in Nairobi, Kenya. In 2004, the undersea earthquake on the other side of the Indian Ocean caused tsunamis along Tanzania's coastline in which 11 people were killed. An oil tanker also temporarily ran aground in the Dar Es Salaam harbour, damaging an oil pipeline.
In 2008, a power surge cut off power to Zanzibar, resulting in the 2008 Zanzibar Power blackout.

HIV/AIDS

Main article: HIV/AIDS in Tanzania

The first cases of HIV/AIDS in Tanzania were reported in 1983. The epidemic has evolved from being a rare and new disease to a common household problem, which has affected most Tanzanian families. The development of the HIV/AIDS epidemic has its clear impact on all sectors of development through not only pressure on AIDS cases needing care and management of resources, but also through debilitation and depletion of the economically active population especially young women and men.^[25]