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Thursday, March 27, 2014

O---LEVEL INFORMATION AND COMPUTER STUDIES --- BY. MWL. JAPHET MASATU.

O--LEVEL INFORMATION AND COMPUTER STUDIES.

INTRODUCTION.

Computer Science (abbreviated CS or CompSci) is the scientific and practical approach to computation and its applications. It is the systematic study of the feasibility, structure, expression, and mechanization of the methodical processes (or algorithms) that underlie the acquisition, representation, processing, storage, communication of, and access to information, whether such information is encoded in bits and bytes in a computer memory or transcribed engines and protein structures in a human cell.^[1] A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems.^[2]
Its subfields can be divided into a variety of theoretical and practical disciplines. Some fields, such as computational complexity theory (which explores the fundamental properties of Computational and intractable problems), are highly abstract, while fields such as computer graphics emphasize real-world visual applications. Still other fields focus on the challenges in implementing computation. For example, programming language theory considers various approaches to the description of computation, whilst the study of computer programming itself investigates various aspects of the use of programming language and complex systems. Human-computer interaction considers the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, and universally accessible to humans.

Computer science deals with the theoretical foundations of information and computation, together with practical techniques for the implementation and application of these foundations

History

Main article: History of computer science

Charles Babbage is credited with inventing the first mechanical computer.

Ada Lovelace is credited with writing the first algorithm intended for processing on a computer.

The earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the abacus have existed since antiquity, aiding in computations such as multiplication and division.
Blaise Pascal designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator, Pascal's calculator, in 1642.^[3] In 1673 Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the 'Stepped Reckoner'.^[4] He may be considered the first computer scientist and information theorist, for, among other reasons documenting the binary number system. In 1820, Thomas de Colmar launched the mechanical calculator industry^[5] when he released his simplified arithmometer, which was the first calculating machine strong enough and reliable enough to be used daily in an office environment. Charles Babbage started the design of the first automatic mechanical calculator, his difference engine, in 1822, which eventually gave him the idea of the first programmable mechanical calculator, his Analytical Engine.^[6] He started developing this machine in 1834 and "in less than two years he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern computer. A crucial step was the adoption of a punched card system derived from the Jacquard loom"^[7] making it infinitely programmable.^[8] In 1843, during the translation of a French article on the analytical engine, Ada Lovelace wrote, in one of the many notes she included, an algorithm to compute the Bernoulli numbers, which is considered to be the first computer program.^[9] Around 1885, Herman Hollerith invented the tabulator which used punched cards to process statistical information; eventually his company became part of IBM. In 1937, one hundred years after Babbage's impossible dream, Howard Aiken convinced IBM, which was making all kinds of punched card equipment and was also in the calculator business^[10] to develop his giant programmable calculator, the ASCC/Harvard Mark I, based on Babbage's analytical engine, which itself used cards and a central computing unit. When the machine was finished, some hailed it as "Babbage's dream come true".^[11]
During the 1940s, as new and more powerful computing machines were developed, the term computer came to refer to the machines rather than their human predecessors.^[12] As it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study computation in general. Computer science began to be established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1950s and early 1960s.^[13]^[14] The world's first computer science degree program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science, began at the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory in 1953. The first computer science degree program in the United States was formed at Purdue University in 1962.^[15] Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own right.
Although many initially believed it was impossible that computers themselves could actually be a scientific field of study, in the late fifties it gradually became accepted among the greater academic population.^[16] It is the now well-known IBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM (short for International Business Machines) released the IBM 704^[17] and later the IBM 709^[18] computers, which were widely used during the exploration period of such devices. "Still, working with the IBM [computer] was frustrating...if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again".^[16] During the late 1950s, the computer science discipline was very much in its developmental stages, and such issues were commonplace.
Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computing technology. Modern society has seen a significant shift in the users of computer technology, from usage only by experts and professionals, to a near-ubiquitous user base. Initially, computers were quite costly, and some degree of human aid was needed for efficient use - in part from professional computer operators. As computer adoption became more widespread and affordable, less human assistance was needed for common usage.

Major achievements

The German military used the Enigma machine (shown here) during World War II for communication they thought to be secret. The large-scale decryption of Enigma traffic at Bletchley Park was an important factor that contributed to Allied victory in WWII.^[19]

Despite its short history as a formal academic discipline, computer science has made a number of fundamental contributions to science and society - in fact, along with electronics, it is a founding science of the current epoch of human history called the Information Age and a driver of the Information Revolution, seen as the third major leap in human technological progress after the Industrial Revolution (1750-1850 CE) and the Agricultural Revolution (8000-5000 BCE).
These contributions include:

The start of the "digital revolution", which includes the current Information Age and the Internet.^[20]
A formal definition of computation and computability, and proof that there are computationally unsolvable and intractable problems.^[21]
The concept of a programming language, a tool for the precise expression of methodological information at various levels of abstraction.^[22]
In cryptography, breaking the Enigma code was an important factor contributing to the Allied victory in World War II.^[19]
Scientific computing enabled practical evaluation of processes and situations of great complexity, as well as experimentation entirely by software. It also enabled advanced study of the mind, and mapping of the human genome became possible with the Human Genome Project.^[20] Distributed computing projects such as Folding@home explore protein folding.
Algorithmic trading has increased the efficiency and liquidity of financial markets by using artificial intelligence, machine learning, and other statistical and numerical techniques on a large scale.^[23] High frequency algorithmic trading can also exacerbate volatility.^[24]
Computer graphics and computer-generated imagery have become ubiquitous in modern entertainment, particularly in television, cinema, advertising, animation and video games. Even films that feature no explicit CGI are usually "filmed" now on digital cameras, or edited or postprocessed using a digital video editor.^{[citation needed]}
Simulation of various processes, including computational fluid dynamics, physical, electrical, and electronic systems and circuits, as well as societies and social situations (notably war games) along with their habitats, among many others. Modern computers enable optimization of such designs as complete aircraft. Notable in electrical and electronic circuit design are SPICE, as well as software for physical realization of new (or modified) designs. The latter includes essential design software for integrated circuits.^{[citation needed]}
Artificial intelligence is becoming increasingly important as it gets more efficient and complex. There are many applications of the AI, some of which can be seen at home, such as robotic vacuum cleaners. It is also present in video games and on the modern battlefield in drones, anti-missile systems, and squad support robots.

Philosophy

Main article: Philosophy of computer science

A number of computer scientists have argued for the distinction of three separate paradigms in computer science. Peter Wegner argued that those paradigms are science, technology, and mathematics.^[25] Peter Denning's working group argued that they are theory, abstraction (modeling), and design.^[26] Amnon H. Eden described them as the "rationalist paradigm" (which treats computer science as a branch of mathematics, which is prevalent in theoretical computer science, and mainly employs deductive reasoning), the "technocratic paradigm" (which might be found in engineering approaches, most prominently in software engineering), and the "scientific paradigm" (which approaches computer-related artifacts from the empirical perspective of natural sciences, identifiable in some branches of artificial intelligence).^[27]

Name of the field

The term "computer science" appears in a 1959 article in Communications of the ACM,^[28] in which Louis Fein argues for the creation of a Graduate School in Computer Sciences analogous to the creation of Harvard Business School in 1921,^[29] justifying the name by arguing that, like management science, the subject is applied and interdisciplinary in nature, while having the characteristics typical of an academic discipline.^[30] His efforts, and those of others such as numerical analyst George Forsythe, were rewarded: universities went on to create such programs, starting with Purdue in 1962.^[31] Despite its name, a significant amount of computer science does not involve the study of computers themselves. Because of this, several alternative names have been proposed.^[32] Certain departments of major universities prefer the term computing science, to emphasize precisely that difference. Danish scientist Peter Naur suggested the term datalogy,^[33] to reflect the fact that the scientific discipline revolves around data and data treatment, while not necessarily involving computers. The first scientific institution to use the term was the Department of Datalogy at the University of Copenhagen, founded in 1969, with Peter Naur being the first professor in datalogy. The term is used mainly in the Scandinavian countries. Also, in the early days of computing, a number of terms for the practitioners of the field of computing were suggested in the Communications of the ACM – turingineer, turologist, flow-charts-man, applied meta-mathematician, and applied epistemologist.^[34] Three months later in the same journal, comptologist was suggested, followed next year by hypologist.^[35] The term computics has also been suggested.^[36] In Europe, terms derived from contracted translations of the expression "automatic information" (e.g. "informazione automatica" in Italian) or "information and mathematics" are often used, e.g. informatique (French), Informatik (German), informatica (Italy, The Netherlands), informática (Spain, Portugal), informatika (Slavic languages) or pliroforiki (πληροφορική, which means informatics) in Greek. Similar words have also been adopted in the UK (as in the School of Informatics of the University of Edinburgh).^[37]
A folkloric quotation, often attributed to—but almost certainly not first formulated by—Edsger Dijkstra, states that "computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes."^{[note 1]} The design and deployment of computers and computer systems is generally considered the province of disciplines other than computer science. For example, the study of computer hardware is usually considered part of computer engineering, while the study of commercial computer systems and their deployment is often called information technology or information systems. However, there has been much cross-fertilization of ideas between the various computer-related disciplines. Computer science research also often intersects other disciplines, such as philosophy, cognitive science, linguistics, mathematics, physics, statistics, and logic.
Computer science is considered by some to have a much closer relationship with mathematics than many scientific disciplines, with some observers saying that computing is a mathematical science.^[13] Early computer science was strongly influenced by the work of mathematicians such as Kurt Gödel and Alan Turing, and there continues to be a useful interchange of ideas between the two fields in areas such as mathematical logic, category theory, domain theory, and algebra.
The relationship between computer science and software engineering is a contentious issue, which is further muddied by disputes over what the term "software engineering" means, and how computer science is defined.^[38] David Parnas, taking a cue from the relationship between other engineering and science disciplines, has claimed that the principal focus of computer science is studying the properties of computation in general, while the principal focus of software engineering is the design of specific computations to achieve practical goals, making the two separate but complementary disciplines.^[39]
The academic, political, and funding aspects of computer science tend to depend on whether a department formed with a mathematical emphasis or with an engineering emphasis. Computer science departments with a mathematics emphasis and with a numerical orientation consider alignment with computational science. Both types of departments tend to make efforts to bridge the field educationally if not across all research.

Areas of computer science

As a discipline, computer science spans a range of topics from theoretical studies of algorithms and the limits of computation to the practical issues of implementing computing systems in hardware and software.^[40]^[41] CSAB, formerly called Computing Sciences Accreditation Board – which is made up of representatives of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), and the IEEE Computer Society (IEEE-CS)^[42] – identifies four areas that it considers crucial to the discipline of computer science: theory of computation, algorithms and data structures, programming methodology and languages, and computer elements and architecture. In addition to these four areas, CSAB also identifies fields such as software engineering, artificial intelligence, computer networking and communication, database systems, parallel computation, distributed computation, computer-human interaction, computer graphics, operating systems, and numerical and symbolic computation as being important areas of computer science.^[40]

Theoretical computer science

Main article: Theoretical computer science

The broader field of theoretical computer science encompasses both the classical theory of computation and a wide range of other topics that focus on the more abstract, logical, and mathematical aspects of computing.

Theory of computation

Main article: Theory of computation

According to Peter J. Denning, the fundamental question underlying computer science is, "What can be (efficiently) automated?"^[13] The study of the theory of computation is focused on answering fundamental questions about what can be computed and what amount of resources are required to perform those computations. In an effort to answer the first question, computability theory examines which computational problems are solvable on various theoretical models of computation. The second question is addressed by computational complexity theory, which studies the time and space costs associated with different approaches to solving a multitude of computational problems.
The famous "P=NP?" problem, one of the Millennium Prize Problems,^[43] is an open problem in the theory of computation.

		P = NP ?	GNITIRW-TERCES
Automata theory	Computability theory	Computational complexity theory	Cryptography	Quantum computing theory

Information and coding theory

Main articles: Information theory and Coding theory

Information theory is related to the quantification of information. This was developed by Claude E. Shannon to find fundamental limits on signal processing operations such as compressing data and on reliably storing and communicating data.^[44] Coding theory is the study of the properties of codes (systems for converting information from one form to another) and their fitness for a specific application. Codes are used for data compression, cryptography, error detection and correction, and more recently also for network coding. Codes are studied for the purpose of designing efficient and reliable data transmission methods.

Algorithms and data structures

$O(n^2)$
Analysis of algorithms	Algorithms	Data structures	Computational geometry

Programming language theory

Main article: Programming language theory

Programming language theory is a branch of computer science that deals with the design, implementation, analysis, characterization, and classification of programming languages and their individual features. It falls within the discipline of computer science, both depending on and affecting mathematics, software engineering and linguistics. It is an active research area, with numerous dedicated academic journals.

$\Gamma\vdash x: \text{Int}$
Type theory	Compiler design	Programming languages

Formal methods

Main article: Formal methods

Formal methods are a particular kind of mathematically based technique for the specification, development and verification of software and hardware systems. The use of formal methods for software and hardware design is motivated by the expectation that, as in other engineering disciplines, performing appropriate mathematical analysis can contribute to the reliability and robustness of a design. They form an important theoretical underpinning for software engineering, especially where safety or security is involved. Formal methods are a useful adjunct to software testing since they help avoid errors and can also give a framework for testing. For industrial use, tool support is required. However, the high cost of using formal methods means that they are usually only used in the development of high-integrity and life-critical systems, where safety or security is of utmost importance. Formal methods are best described as the application of a fairly broad variety of theoretical computer science fundamentals, in particular logic calculi, formal languages, automata theory, and program semantics, but also type systems and algebraic data types to problems in software and hardware specification and verification.

Applied computer science

Applied Computer Science aims at identifying certain Computer Science concepts that can be used directly in solving real world problems.

Artificial intelligence

Main article: Artificial intelligence

This branch of computer science aims to or is required to synthesise goal-orientated processes such as problem-solving, decision-making, environmental adaptation, learning and communication which are found in humans and animals. From its origins in cybernetics and in the Dartmouth Conference (1956), artificial intelligence (AI) research has been necessarily cross-disciplinary, drawing on areas of expertise such as applied mathematics, symbolic logic, semiotics, electrical engineering, philosophy of mind, neurophysiology, and social intelligence. AI is associated in the popular mind with robotic development, but the main field of practical application has been as an embedded component in areas of software development which require computational understanding and modeling such as finance and economics, data mining and the physical sciences. The starting-point in the late 1940s was Alan Turing's question "Can computers think?", and the question remains effectively unanswered although the "Turing Test" is still used to assess computer output on the scale of human intelligence. But the automation of evaluative and predictive tasks has been increasingly successful as a substitute for human monitoring and intervention in domains of computer application involving complex real-world data.


Machine learning	Computer vision	Image processing	Pattern recognition

Cognitive science	Data mining	Evolutionary computation	Information retrieval

Knowledge representation	Natural language processing	Robotics	Medical Image Computing

Computer architecture and engineering

Main articles: Computer architecture and Computer engineering

Computer architecture, or digital computer organization, is the conceptual design and fundamental operational structure of a computer system. It focuses largely on the way by which the central processing unit performs internally and accesses addresses in memory.^[45] The field often involves disciplines of computer engineering and electrical engineering, selecting and interconnecting hardware components to create computers that meet functional, performance, and cost goals.


Digital logic	Microarchitecture	Multiprocessing

Operating systems	Computer networks	Databases	Information security

Ubiquitous computing	Systems architecture	Compiler design	Programming languages

Computer graphics and visualization

Main article: Computer graphics (computer science)

Computer graphics is the study of digital visual contents, and involves synthese and manipulations of image data. The study is connected to many other fields in computer science, including computer vision, image processing, and computational geometry, and is heavily applied in the fields of special effects and video games.

Computer security and cryptography

Main articles: Computer security and Cryptography

Computer security is a branch of computer technology, whose objective includes protection of information from unauthorized access, disruption, or modification while maintaining the accessibility and usability of the system for its intended users. Cryptography is the practice and study of hiding (encryption) and therefore deciphering (decryption) information. Modern cryptography is largely related to computer science, for many encryption and decryption algorithms are based on their computational complexity.

Computational science

Computational science (or scientific computing) is the field of study concerned with constructing mathematical models and quantitative analysis techniques and using computers to analyze and solve scientific problems. In practical use, it is typically the application of computer simulation and other forms of computation to problems in various scientific disciplines.


Numerical analysis	Computational physics	Computational chemistry	Bioinformatics

Computer Networks

Main article: Computer network

This branch of computer science aims to manage networks between computers worldwide.

Concurrent, parallel and distributed systems

Main articles: Concurrency (computer science) and Distributed computing

Concurrency is a property of systems in which several computations are executing simultaneously, and potentially interacting with each other. A number of mathematical models have been developed for general concurrent computation including Petri nets, process calculi and the Parallel Random Access Machine model. A distributed system extends the idea of concurrency onto multiple computers connected through a network. Computers within the same distributed system have their own private memory, and information is often exchanged amongst themselves to achieve a common goal.

Databases

Main articles: Database and Database management systems

A database is intended to organize, store, and retrieve large amounts of data easily. Digital databases are managed using database management systems to store, create, maintain, and search data, through database models and query languages.

Health Informatics

Main article: Health Informatics

Health Informatics in computer science deals with computational techniques for solving problems in health care.

Information science

Main article: Information science


Information retrieval	Knowledge representation	Natural language processing	Human–computer interaction

Software engineering

Main article: Software engineering

Software engineering is the study of designing, implementing, and modifying software in order to ensure it is of high quality, affordable, maintainable, and fast to build. It is a systematic approach to software design, involving the application of engineering practices to software. Software engineering deals with the organizing and analyzing of software— it doesn't just deal with the creation or manufacture of new software, but its internal maintenance and arrangement. Both computer applications software engineers and computer systems software engineers are projected to be among the fastest growing occupations from 2008 and 2018.

The great insights of computer science

The philosopher of computing Bill Rapaport noted three Great Insights of Computer Science ^[46]

Leibniz's, Boole's, Alan Turing's, Shannon's, & Morse's insight: There are only 2 objects that a computer has to deal with in order to represent "anything"

All the information about any computable problem can be represented using only 0 & 1 (or any other bistable pair that can flip-flop between two easily distinguishable states,such as "on"/"off", "magnetized/de-magnetized", "high-voltage/low-voltage", etc.).

Academia

Conferences

Further information: List of computer science conferences

Conferences are strategic events of the Academic Research in computer science. During those conferences, researchers from the public and private sectors present their recent work and meet. Proceedings of these conferences are an important part of the computer science literature.

Journals

Further information: Category:Computer science journals

Education

Some universities teach computer science as a theoretical study of computation and algorithmic reasoning. These programs often feature the theory of computation, analysis of algorithms, formal methods, concurrency theory, databases, computer graphics, and systems analysis, among others. They typically also teach computer programming, but treat it as a vessel for the support of other fields of computer science rather than a central focus of high-level study. The ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Curriculum Task Force "Computing Curriculum 2005" (and 2008 update) ^[47] gives a guideline for university curriculum.
Other colleges and universities, as well as secondary schools and vocational programs that teach computer science, emphasize the practice of advanced programming rather than the theory of algorithms and computation in their computer science curricula. Such curricula tend to focus on those skills that are important to workers entering the software industry. The process aspects of computer programming are often referred to as software engineering.
While computer science professions increasingly drive the U.S. economy, computer science education is absent in most American K-12 curricula. A report entitled "Running on Empty: The Failure to Teach K-12 Computer Science in the Digital Age" was released in October 2010 by Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) and Computer Science Teachers Association (CSTA), and revealed that only 14 states have adopted significant education standards for high school computer science. The report also found that only nine states count high school computer science courses as a core academic subject in their graduation requirements. In tandem with "Running on Empty", a new non-partisan advocacy coalition - Computing in the Core (CinC) - was founded to influence federal and state policy, such as the Computer Science Education Act, which calls for grants to states to develop plans for improving computer science education and supporting computer science teachers.
Within the United States a gender gap in computer science education has been observed as well. Research conducted by the WGBH Educational Foundation and the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) revealed that more than twice as many high school boys considered computer science to be a “very good” or “good” college major than high school girls.^[48] In addition, the high school Advanced Placement (AP) exam for computer science has displayed a disparity in gender. Compared to other AP subjects it has the lowest number of female participants, with a composition of about 15 percent women.^[49] This gender gap in computer science is further witnessed at the college level, where 31 percent of undergraduate computer science degrees are earned by women and only 8 percent of computer science faculty consists of women.^[50] According to an article published by the Epistemic Games Group in August 2012, the number of women graduates in the computer science field has declined to 13 percent.^[51]

Friday, March 21, 2014

MWANAFUNZI WA SHULE YA SEKONDARI MANZESE AKIWA AMELALA DARASANI , JIJINI DAR --ES--SALAAM, TANZANIA.

UCHOVU CLASS

WANAFUNZI WA MANZESE SEKONDARI WAKIWA KATIKA POZI , DAR--ES--SALAAM, TANAZNIA.

SIR ALLAN BWANA SKONGA AKIMHOJI MWANAFUNZI WA MANZESE SEKONDARI

MWL. JAPHET MASATU AKICHEZA MUZIKI

MANZESE SECONDARY SCHOOL, TANZANIA

MANZESE SECONDARY SCHOOL , DAR--ES--SALAAM , TANZANIA.

MWANAFUNZI AKIPATA ADHABU

MANZESE SECONDARY SCHOOL

WANAFUNZI WA MANZESE SECONDARY SCHOOL

MWL. JAPHET MASATU AKIWA MANZESE SECONDARY SCHOOL-- 2013

SIR ALLAN WA SKONGA AKIWA MANZESE SECONDARY SCHOOL --2013

MWL. JAPHET MASATU NA MWL. PROSPER STEVEN WAKIWA MANZESE SECONDARY SCHOOL

MWL. JAPHET MASATU AKIWA NA BWANA SKONGA , SIR ALLAN

MTOTO WA MWL. JAPHET MASATU, GABRIEL JAPHET AKIWA KATIKA POZI.

MWL. JAPHET MASATU AKIWA KATIKA POZI KIBAMBA, DAR--ES--SALAAM, TANZANIA.

MAMA MZAZI WA MWL. JAPHET MASATU AKIWA NA MWANAFUNZI WAKE WA KAYUKI GIRLS SECONDARY SCHOOL, CHUO KIKUU CHA ARDHI

MWL. JAPHET MASATU AKIWA HOME.

MWL. JAPHET MASATU ALIPOHITIMU MAFUNZO YA STASHAHADA YA UALIMU 2008----2010, CHUO CHA UALIMU TUKUYU MBEYA, TANZANIA.

MWL. JAPHET MASATU AKIWA MAENEO YA MLIMANI CITY, DAR--ES-SALAAM, KATIKA SEMINA YA VIJANA --- 2013.

KISWAHILI KIDATO CHA V---VI

TAFSIRI NA UKALIMANI
Tafsiri [Translation]

Dhana ya Tafsiri.

Tafsiri imefasiliwa kuwa, ni Kutoa mawazo kutoka katika lugha moja kwenda lugha nyingine bila ya kubadilisha maana. [TUKI 2002: 271]

Catford [1965:20] anasema tafsiri ni, “Kuchukua mawazo yaliyo katika maandishi kutoka lugha moja {lugha chanzi} na kuweka badala yake mawazo yanayolingana katika lugha nyingine {lugha lengwa}.
Vilevile imefasiliwa kuwa ni “Mawazo yaliyotolewa kutoka lugha moja hadi lugha nyingine.”
TUKI [2002: 271] Tafsiri ni kueleza maana ya maneno kutoka lugha moja kwenda lugha nyingine.
Maana zote hizo tulizoziangalia, utaona kuwa, kuna mambo matatu muhimu yanayojitokeza, mambo hayo ni:
(i) Mawazo yanayotakiwa kutafsiriwa sharti yawe katika maandishi.

(ii) Mawazo au ujumbe kati ya lugha chanzi na lugha lengwa sharti yalingane.

(iii) Tafsiri inaweza kuwa kutoa maana ya maneno au mawazo.
Baada ya kuangalia maana ya tafsiri, sasa tuangalie maana ya mfasiri na sifa anazotakiwa kuwa nazo mfasiri:
Mfasiri

Mfasiri ni mtu anayefanya tafsiri kutoka lugha moja hadi lugha nyinge.[TUKI:2000:165]

Kwa ujumla tunaweza kusema kuwa, mfasiri ni mtu anayehamisha mawazo kutoka lugha moja (lugha chanzi) kwa kutumia lugha nyingine ili mawazo hayo yaeleweke na watu wasiojua au kuielewa lugha chanzi, na mawazo hayo sharti yawe katika maandishi.

Sifa za mfasiri bora

Mfasiri bora anatakiwa kuwa na sifa zifuatazo:

? Awe na ujuzi wa lugha fasaha, hii ina maana kuwa awe anajua kwa ufasaha lugha zote mbili, yaani lugha chanzi na lugha lengwa.

? Awe na ufahamu mkamilifu wa ujumbe au mada iliyoandikwa katika matini chanzi na uwezo au jinsi ya kuelezea ujumbe au mada hiyo kwa ufasaha katika lugha lengwa.

? Awe amesoma maandishi ya matini chanzi hadi ayafahamu kinaga ubaga halafu aweze kuyafikiria katika lugha lengwa.

Historia ya Tafsiri nchini Tanzania / Afrika mashariki

Taaluma hii ya tafsiri ina historia ndefu hapa dunia tangu kale, lakini kwa hapa Tanzania na Afrika mashariki kwa ujumla historia hii ya tafsiri haina historia ndefu kwani inaanzia karne ya 19 ambapo wamisionari walitafsiri vitabu mbalimbali vya kikristo ikiwemo biblia kutoka lugha ya kiingereza kwenda Kiswahili na lugha nyingine za makabila makubwa nchini Tanzania.
Na hata wakati wa utawala wa kikoloni hasa waingereza walitafsiri maandiko mbalimbali ya taaluma na fasihi ya Ulaya kwa lugha ya Kiswahili Na hata baada ya uhuru wapo wazalendo waliofanya juhudi za kutafsiri vitabu mbalimbali kwa lugha ya Kiswahili mfano mzuri ni Rais wa kwanza wa Tanzania Mwalimu Julius K. Nyerere ambaye alitafsiri vitabu viwili vya mwandishi mashuhuri wa tamthiliya wa Uingereza William Shakespeare ambavyo ni: Juliasi Kaizari [1963] na Mabepari wa Venisi[1969] {Tazama pia Mwansoko na wenzake 2006 : 5}

Mfano wa tafsiri ambazo zimetafsiriwa kwa lugha ya Kiswahili ni pamoja na ya,Ayi Kwei Armah, Wema Hawajazaliwa ambayo imetafsiriwa na Abdilatif Abdalla, House boy ya Ferdinand Oyono iliyotafsiriwa na Raphael Khasao na Nathan Mwele. Juliasi Kaizari na Mabepari wa Venisiza zaWilliam Shakespeare zilizotafsiriwa na Julius K. Nyerere, Hekaya za Abunuwasi, Kimetafsiriwa na Interterritorial Language Committee, East Africa, Alfu Lela Ulela: Kimetafsiriwa na Sir Richard Burton na Mashimo ya Mfalme Suleiman kilichotafsiriwa na Sir Rider Haggard, Takadini,kimetafsiriwa na Mathews Bookstore and Stationers, Nitaolewa Nikipenda ambacho kimetafsiriwa na Crement M. Kabugi. vitabu vingine vilivyotafsiriwa ni kama vile; Orodha, Barua Ndefu Kama Hii n.k.

Mpaka sasa wataalamu mbalimbali wamekuwa wakiendelea kutafsiri maandiko mbalimbali kama vile mikataba na ripoti mbalimbali za kimataifa, sheria ambazo mwanzo zilikuwa zikiandikwa kwa lugha ya kiingereza, vitabu vya kiada na ziada, kazi za kifasihi, n.k

Mambo ya kuzingatia katika tafsiri

Katika sehemu hii tutaangalia mambo muhimu yanayotakiwa kuzingatiwa katika tafsiri, hivyo basi, tutagawa mambo hayo ya kuzingatia katika sehemu mbili, sehemu ya kwanza ni mambo ya kuzingatia kabla ya kuanza mchakato wa kutafsiri na sehemu ya pili, tutaangalia mambo muhimu ya kuzingatia wakati wa mchakato wa kutafsiri. Tukianza na:

[a] Mambo ya kuzingatia kabla ya kuanza mchakato wa kutafsiri.

? Kwanza unatakiwa kusoma matini nzima.

Mtu anayetaka kutafsiri matini yoyote ile jambo la msingi la kuzingatia ni kuisoma matini nzima tena kwa umakini ili kuelewa maudhui ya matini chanzi, kuweka alama sehemu za matini zenye utata au zisizoeleweka vizuri, hii itamsaidia kubaini ni aina gani ya marejeo muhimu yatakayomsaidia kutafsiri mfano wa marejeo hayo ni kama kamusi, ensiklopedia, orodha ya msamiati na istilahi mpya.

? Unatakiwa kubaini lengo la matini chanzi

Baada ya kuisoma matini chanzi, je! Umeweza kubaini lengo la matini chanzi ni nini? Kubaini lengo la matini kutakusaidia kuweza kutafsiri bila kutofautiana/kukinzana na lengo la matini chanzi, mathalani, matini mbili tofauti zinaweza kueleza jambo lilelile na kutumia data zilezile lakini mtindo wa lugha uliotumika unaweza ukaonesha mitazamo miwili tofauti.

Hebu angalia tamthilia ya Mercant of Venice, iliyoandikwa na William Shakespeare na kutafsiriwa na Mwalimu J.K. Nyerere kwa lugha ya Kiswahili na kuitwa Mabepari wa Venisi, kumbuka kuwa tamthiliya hiyo ingeweza kuitwa pia Wafanyabiashara wa Venisi lakini ukiangalia tafsiri ya kwanza [Ya Mwalimu Nyerere] inatupa hisia hasi wakati ya pili huwezi kupata hisia yoyote.{Mwansoko na wenzake 2006:15}

? Unatakiwa kubaini hadhira/ wasomaji lengwa.

Kabla ya mfasiri hajabaini wasomaji au hadhira ya wasomaji wa matini yake ya tafsiri ni vema kwanza akaibaini hadhira ya matini chanzi na ndipo abaini hadhira/ wasomaji mahususi wa matini yake ya tafsiri, maswali anayotakiwa kujiuliza mfasiri ili aweze kuibaini hadhira ya matini yake ya tafsiri ni: je msomaji wa tafsiri yake ni nani? Ana kiwango gani cha elimu, ni msomi wa kawaida au msomi aliyebobea? Wana umri gani na ni jinsia gani? Je hadhira yake imo katika tabaka gani katika jamii? Baada ya kupata majibu ya maswali hayo, mfasiri atakuwa ameibaini hadhira yake,na hii itamsaidia mfasiri kuamua umbo la matini yake, kama ataamua iwe katika umbo la gazeti, jarida, kijarida, n.k. jambo la kuzingatia umbo la matini ya tafsiri ishabihiane na hadhi ya umbo la matini chanzi. Kwa kuibaini hadhira ya matini lengwa itamsaidia mfasiri kuamua kuirahisisha tafsiri yake au kuifanya iwe ngumu kutegemeana na uwezo wa hadhira ya tafsiri lengwa.

? Unatakiwa kubaini mtindo wa matini chanzi.

Vilevile, mfasiri anatakiwa kujua, matini chanzi imetumia mtindo gani katika kuwasilisha maudhui yake, imetumia mtindo wa kirasimu? Au imetumia mtindo wa kitaaluma? Je imetumia mtindo wa kiuandishi wa habari au mtindo wa kimawasiliano yasiyo rasmi? Je ametumia lugha rasmi au ya mtaani? Na inatakiwa mtindo wa matini chanzi ilingane na ile ya matini lengwa. Tazama mifano ifuatayo:

Kingereza: Please, Sir do no mind it! If I arrive earlier I’ll wait for you

Kiswahili: Mkubwa! Kausha tu! Na kama nitatia maguu mapema,

nitakusikilizia Palepale

Ukiangalia mfano huo, utaona kuwa, mitindo iliyotumika katika sentensi hizo ni mitindo miwili tofauti, katika mfano tuliouangalia katika lugha chanzi, mtindo wa lugha uliotumika ni mtindo rasmi, wakati katika tafsiri [lugha lengwa] mtindo uliotumika ni mtindo wa lugha ya mtaani, jambo ambalo si zuri katika tafsiri. Mtindo wa lugha lengwa sharti ulingane na mtindo wa lugha chanzi.

hivyo katika mfano huo, mtindo sahihi ungetakiwa kuwa;

Tafadhari! usijali! kama nitafika mapema, nitakusubiri.

? Kusoma matini kwa mara ya mwisho

Jambo lingine la kuzingatia ni kuisoma upya matini chanzi. Katika kipengele hiki, mfasiri anashauriwa aisome matini chanzi kwa mara ya mwisho huku akipigia mstari au kuandika katika kidaftari kidogo msamiati, istilahi na misemo muhimu ya matini chanzi kama vile, methali, nahau maneno ya kitamaduni yasiyotafsirika, majina maalumu, n.k. kwa kupigia mstari au kuyaandika katika kidaftari kidogo ili iwe rahisi kwa mfasiri kuyatafutia visawe vyake kabla hata ya kuanza kutafsiri lakini pia kumsaidia mfasiri asiyasahau wakati wa kutafsiri.

Hayo ndiyo mambo ambayo, mfasiri anatakiwa kuyazingatia kabla hajaanza mchakato wa kutafsiri. Hivyo basi, sasa tugeukie upande wa pili ambao ni:

[b] Mambo ya kuzingatia wakati wa mchakato wa kutafsiri.

? Maandalizi ya kutafsiri

Katika hatua hii, mfasiri anatakiwa kufahamu vizuri maudhui ya matini chanzi, ujumbe wake, mtindo wa matini na kuwekea alama sehemu zenye utata au zisizoeleweka vizuri, anashauriwa kupigia mstari au kuandika katika kidaftari kidogo msamiati, istilahi na misemo muhimu ya matini chanzi kama vile, methali, nahau maneno ya kitamaduni yasiyotafsirika, majina maalumu, n.k. kwa kupigia mstari au kuyaandika katika kidaftari kidogo ili iwe rahisi kwa mfasiri kuyatafutia visawe vyake kabla hata ya kuanza kutafsiri lakini pia kumsaidia mfasiri asiyasahau wakati wa kutafsiri au kuyatolea ufafanuzi zaidi katika tafsiri yake.

? Uchambuzi wa matini chanzi

Katika hatua hii, mfasiri anatakiwa kuchunguza kwa makini maneno, methali, nahau, misemo pamoja na maelezo mengine ya matini chanzi aliyoyaandika au kuyapigia mstari katika hatua ya maandalizi na kuyatafutia visawe vyake katika lugha lengwa, hapa mfasiri anashauriwa kutumia marejeo mbalimbali kama vile, kamusi, ensiklopedia, orodha ya msamiati na istilahi mpya.

Mfasiri anatakiwa kuwa na shajara au daftari dogo kwa ajili ya kuandika na kuhifadhi maneno na maelezo muhimu ya matini chanzi na visawe vyake, visawe vinavyoonekana kufaa viorodheshwe vizuri ili iwe rahisi kuvirejelea wakati wa kutafsiri, vilevile mfasiri kama ataona kuwa matini chanzi ni ndefu sana, anashauriwa kuigawa matini hiyo katika sehemu ndogondogo kama vile, sura, aya au sentensi na kuanza kushughulikia sehemu moja baada ya nyingine.

? Uhawilishaji

Uhawilishaji ni uhamishaji wa mawazo kutoka lugha chanzi kwenda lugha lengwa, au uhamishaji wa mawazo au ujumbe kutoka matini asilia kwenda matini ya tafsiri. Hii ina maana kuwa katika hatua hii, visawe vya kisemantiki [kimaana] vya matini chanzi vilivyobainishwa katika hatua ya uchambuzi huamishwa katika matini lengwa [kutoka lugha chanzi kwenda lugha lengwa] na kupangwa vizuri kisarufi na kimantiki ili fasiri hiyo iwe na maana kwa wasomaji wake.

? Kusawidi /Kuandaa rasimu ya kwanza ya tafsiri.

Katika hatua hii, mfasiri huandika rasimu yake ya kwanza ili kupata picha fulani ya matini aliyoikusudia, katika uandaaji wa rasimu ya kwanza, kwa kufanya hivi, mfasiri anaweza kugundua kuwa anahitaji taarifa zaidi tofauti na alizozipata katika hatua ya uchambuzi, na hivyo kulazimika kuchunguza zaidi matini chanzi na hata kupekua zaidi na zaidi marejeo yake aliyoyaandaa kwa kuyatumia katika tafsiri. Jambo la kuzingatia, mfasiri anatakiwa wakati akihamisha mawazo au ujumbe azingatie umbo na lengo la matini chanzi ili kutoathiri tafsiri yake.

? Kudurusu / kuipitia rasimu ya kwanza

Baada ya kusawidi rasimu ya kwanza, mfasiri anatakiwa kuivundika rasimu yake ya tafsiri kati ya juma moja hadi mawili baada ya kukamilika kwake na kuanza kuidurusu/ kuipitia rasimu hiyo kwa jicho la kihakiki zaidi na kuangalia kama kuna makosa ambayo yamejitokeza katika rasimu yake au la na kuyafanyia marekebisho pale inapobidi.

? Kusomwa kwa rasimu ya tafsiri na mtu/watu wengine

Baada ya mfasiri kuipitia rasimu yake ya kwanza, na kuifanyia masahihisho kwa makosa yaliyojitokeza, anatakiwa kuwapa watu wengine waidurusu rasimu hiyo iliyofanyiwa marekebisho ili waipitie tena na kuirekebisha, hivyo basi wasomaji hao wanaweza wakahakiki,wakashauri, n.k. Wasomaji hawa husaidia kuona kama tafsiri iko sahihi, inaeleweka na ina mtiririko mzuri wenye mantiki.

? Usawidi /Kuandika rasimu ya mwisho

Baada ya kupata maoni kutoka kwa wasomaji wa pili, mfasiri anaweza kuyatumia maoni, mapendekezo na maelekezo yao kusahihisha tena tafsiri yake na hatimaye kuandaa na kutoa rasimu ya mwisho ambayo itakuwa tayari kwa kusomwa na wasomaji.

Njia / mbinu za Tafsiri

Zipo njia mbalimbali ambazo hutumika katika kutafsiri, baadhi ya njia hizo ni kama vile:

(i) Tafsiri ya neno kwa neno. [Word to word translation]

(ii) Tafsiri sisisi.[ Literal translation]

(iii) Tafsiri ya kimaana/uwazi.[ Semantic translation]

(iv) Tafsiri ya kimawasiliano.[Communicative translation]

(i) Tafsiri ya neno kwa neno [Word to word translation]

Hii ni aina ya tafsiri ambayo mofimu na maneno hufasiriwa yakiwa pweke pweke kwa kuzingatia maana zake za msingi bila kujali muktadha. Katika aina hii ya tafsiri mpangilio wa mofimu na maneno wa lugha chanzi hubakia vilevile bila kubadilika. Na kwa kawaida matini inayotafsiriwa huandikwa chini ya matini ya lugha chanzi. Tazama mifano ifuatayo ya tafsiri ya neno kwa neno:

Kiswahili: Alisoma hadi asubuhi

Kingereza: He/past/study/until/morning

Kiswahili: Alikimbia mpaka ofisini kwake

Kingereza: He/past/run/until/office/his

Kiswahili: Anasoma kitabu changu

Kingereza: He/present/book/my

Kiswahili: Walikula chakula chote

Kingereza: They/past/eat/food/all

Umuhimu wa njia hii, humsaidia mtu kuelewa muundo wa lugha chanzi na jinsi lugha chanzi inavyofanya kazi, kaina hii ya tafsiri hutumiwa na wataalamu wa lugha kuonesha namna maumbo au muundo wa lugha chanzi ulivyo, lakini mapungufu yake ni kuwa, aina hii ya tafsiri huwa haitoi maana inayokusudiwa kwa uwazi zaidi.

(ii) Tafsiri sisisi [ Literal translation]

Hii ni aina ya tafsiri ambayo maneno hufasiriwa yakiwa pweke pweke kwa kuzingatia maana za msingi katika lugha chanzi bila kujali sana muktadha lakini ni tafsiri inayofuata mfumo wa kisarufi hasa kipengele cha kisintaksia ya lugha lengwa. Ebu tuangalie mifano ifuatayo:

Kingereza: He was taken at the Central Police Station

Kiswahili: Alipelekwa kwenye kituo cha kati cha police.

Badala ya kuwa: Alipelekwa kituo kikuu cha polisi

(iii) Tafsiri ya kisemantiki/maana au uwazi [Semantic Translation]

Hii ni aina ya tafsiri ambayo mfasiri huegemea zaidi kwenye lugha chanzi. Katika aina hii ya tafsiri, mfasiri hufasiri kila neno katika sentensi jinsi lilivyo lakini kwa kufuata sarufi hususani vipengele vya kisemantiki na kisintaksia ya lugha chanzi. Inaitwa tafsiri ya kisemantiki kwa sababu, mfasiri anapofasiri hutakiwa kuweka mkazo kwenye maana ya matini kama ilivyokusudiwa na mwandishi wa matini chanzi.

Katika aina hii ya tafsiri, masahihisho au urekebishaji wa neno au jambo lolote unalodhani limekosewa haliruhusiwi isipokuwa unaweza kuweka hayo marekebisho au ufafanuzi katika tanbihi. Sasa tuangalie baadhi ya mifano ya aina hii ya tafsiri:

Kiswahili: Alikwenda mpaka hospitali

Kingereza: He went up to hospital

Kingereza: Jane married John

Kiswahili: Jane alimwoa John

Aina hii ya tafsiri, ina faida kubwa katika ukuaji wa lugha lengwa kwa kuingiza miundo ya misemo kutoka lugha chanzi, mathalani, lugha ya Kiswahili imepokea miundo mipya ya misemo kutoka lugha ya Kingereza, baadhi ya miundo hiyo ni kama vile:

Kiswahili: Usiku mwema ? kutoka Kingereza: Good night

Kiswhili: Mabibi na mabwana ? kutoka Kingereza: ladies and gentlemen

Kiswahili: Wako mtiifu ? Kutoka Kiingereza: Yours Sincerel

Kiswahili: Naomba nichukue nafasi hii.. ? Kutoka Kiingereza: May I take this opportunity…

[Tazama pia Mwansoko na wenzake: 2006]

(iv) Tafsiri ya kimawasiliano/ huru [Communicative Translation]

Hii ni aina ya tafsiri inayomlenga msomaji [hadhira] wa matini lengwa, ambaye katika aina hii ya tafsiri hatarajii kukutana na ugumu wowote katika matini atakayoisoma, bali hutarajia kukutana na tafsiri nyepesi ya dhana za kigeni katika utamaduni na lugha yake kwa kadiri itakavyoonekana. Hivyo basi, mfasiri wa aina hii ya tafsiri yuko huru kutafuta maneno na mafungu ya maneno yanayolingana na maneno, methali, nahau, utamaduni na mazingira ya lugha lengwa, pamoja na kuwa tafsiri ya kimawasiliano kufuata sarufi ya lugha lengwa ni lazima pia ifuate utamaduni, mazingira na historia ya jamii ya lugha lengwa. Tuangalie mifano ifuatayo:

Kingereza: Jane married John

Kiswahili: John alimwoa Jane

Kingereza: No need to cry over spilt milk

Kiswahili: Maji yakimwagika hayazoleki

Kiingereza: What comes around goes arround

Kiswahili: Mla vya watu, naye vyake huliwa.

Kiswahili: Akufaaye kwa dhiki ndiye rafiki wa kweli

Kiingereza: A friend in need is a friend in need

Kiswahili: Bahati haiji mara mbili

Kiingereza: Golden chance never comes twice

Aina hii ya tafsiri hulenga kutoa athari ile ile au inayokaribiana kwa hadhira ya matini lengwa kama ilivyo kwa hadhira ya matini chanzi[ matini asilia], hii ni aina ya tafsiri ambayo hutumika sana kufasiri mawazo ya kigeni katika lugha na mazingira mapya, mawazo ambayo huelezwa katika misingi ya lugha, utamaduni na mazingira yanayoeleweka kwa hadhira ya matini lengwa.

Ebu tuangalie baadhi ya mifano tuliyoiangalia katika tafsiri ya Kisemantiki [maana] tunavyoweza kutafsiri katika njia ya tafsiri ya kimawasiliano:

Kiingereza Kiswahili

Good night Lala salama

Ladies and Gentlemen Ndugu zangu

Yours Sincerely Ni mimi

May I take this opportunity to… Naomba mnisikilize

Hivyo basi, katika aina hii ya tafsiri, mfasiri hutafuta methali au misemo inayopatikana katika lugha lengwa inayohusiana au kukaribiana na ile ya lugha chanzi. Ebu jaribu kutafsiri misemo/methali zifuatayo ya lugha ya Kiswahili kwenda lugha ya Kiingereza:

Adhabu ya kaburi aijuaye maiti

Asiyekubali kushindwa si mshindani

Asiyefunzwa na mamaye hufunzwa

Chema chajiuza kibaya chajitembeza

Dua la kuku halimpati mwewe

Bandubandu humaliza gogo

Jogoo wa shamba hawiki mjini

La kuvunda halina ubani

Mtegemea cha nduguye hufa masikini

Faida ya aina hii ya tafsiri, humfanya mfasiri kuwa huru kutumia maneno au mafungu ya maneno ambayo huweza kutoa athari ile ile au inayokaribiana na maneno au mafungu ya maneno katika matini ya lugha chanzi, lakini mapungufu ya aina hii ya tafsiri huweza kutokea iwapo mfasiri ataamua kuegemea mno kwenye mawazo, historia, mazingira au itikadi ya lugha lengwa. Ebu tuangalie mifano ifuatayo:

Kingereza: The Merchant of Venice

Kiswahili: Mabepari wa Venisi

Ukiangalia mfano huo utaona kuwa, The Merchant of Venice, tamthiliya iliyoandikwa na William Shakespeare, ingefaa pia kufasiriwa kuwa, Wafanyabiashara wa Venisi, lakini Mwalimu J.K Nyerere aliamua kuifasiri kuwa, Mabepari wa Venisi kutokana na kuwa Nyerere ndiye mwasisi wa itikadi ya Ujamaa nchini Tanzania, hivyo aliegemea katika itikadi kufasiri.

Hivyo basi, mtu anapokuwa anafanya kazi ya kufasiri, maandishi yo yote kutoka lugha moja kwenda lugha nyingine atajikuta akiangukia katika moja wapo ya njia tulizozijadili hapo juu, lakini ikumbukwe tafsiri ya neno kwa neno ni nadra sana kutumiwa na wafasiri wengi, na njia hizo huweza kuingiliana katika matini moja ya tafsiri.

Ukalimani [Interpritation]

Ukalimani ni nini?

Ukalimani imefasiliwa kuwa ni, uhusishaji wa kuhamisha maana kutoka lugha moja (lugha chanzi) kwenda lugha nyingine (lugha lengwa) katika mazungumzo. Hivyo basi tunaweza kusema pia, ukalimani ni hali ya mtu kuhamisha mawazo ya kinachozungumzwa kutoka lugha moja kwenda lugha nyingine katika mazungumzo. Hii ina maana kuwa ukalimani ni lazima uhusishe pande mbili, upande wa kwanza sharti awepo mtu anayezungumza lugha fulani na upande mwingine kunakuwa na mtu ambaye anasikiliza hicho kinachozungumzwa na kuyarudia hayo yanayozungumzwa kwa kutumia lugha nyingine tofauti na ile iliyotumiwa na mazungumzaji wa kwanza.

Hivyo basi, ukiangalia, maana hiyo tuliyoiangalia utaona kuwa, ukalimani ni taaluma inayohusu mazungumzo wakati tafsiri yenyewe uhusu maanadishi, kwa maana hiyo huwa tunatafsiri maandishi kutoka lugha moja kwenda lugha nyingine na tunakalimani mazungumzo kutoka lugha moja kwenda lugha nyingine.

Ukalimani ulianza pale ambapo mataifa mbalimbali yenye kuzungumza lugha tofauti tofauti yalipoanza kuingiliana na kushirikiana katika shughuli mbalimbali za kijamii, kisiasa, kichumi na kiutamaduni, kwa mfano ujio wa wageni Afrika Mashariki kama vile Waarabu, Wajerumani na Waingereza ili waweze kuwasiliana na wenyeji wao waliambatana na watu ambao walikuwa wakiwatumia kama wakilamani wao.

Kwa sasa hivi ukalimani umekuwa kama taaluma muhimu, ukalimani unafanyika katika mahakama, kanisani, katika mikutano ya kimataifa, mahubiri ya kidini, n.k na kutokana na maendeleo ya sayansi na teknolojia, kuna vifaa maalumu ambayo hutumika kukalimani mazungunzo kutoka lugha moja kwenda lugha nyingine, ambayo huvaliwa masikioni katika kumbi za mikutano. Na sasa ni taaluma inayofundishwa katika shule za sekondari na elimu ya juu kama ilivyo kwa tafsiri kutokana na umuhimu wake.

Mkalimani ni mtu muhumi sana katika kufanikisha mawasiliano kwa watu wanaotumia lugha mbili tofauti, au lugha inayotumika katika eneo hilo msikilizaji haielewi na haijui na ndiyo maana utakuta wakalimani wakihitajika mahakamni, mikutano ya kimataifa, katika mahubiri ya kidini au mahali popote pale ambapo wazungumzaji hawawezi kuelewana kwa kuwa wanatumia lugha tofauti.

Sifa za mkalimani bora

? Awe mtu anayezielewa lugha chanzi na lugha lengwa vizuri

? Awe ni mtu ambaye ameishi pande zote za lugha anazozikalimani ili kuelewa mila na desturi za watumiaji wa lugha hizo.

? Awe stadi wa ukalimani, hapa inatakiwa awe na uhodari wa kukalimani, kuzungumza vizuri, maneno kusikika, awe na uwezo wa kukalimani neno kwa neno au sentensi na sentensi, kutumia ishara zinazoambatana na ishara za mzungumzaji wa lugha chanzi na hata kutumia mtindo anaodhani unaweza kuwavutia wasikilizaji wake.

? Muadirifu, ambaye hawezi kupotosha au kubadili ukweli wa kinachozungumzwa, nah ii ni muhimu kwa sababu wakalimani hutumika hadi mahakami hivyo kama si mwadirifu huweza kuufanya upande mmoja ukakosa haki inayostahiri.

? Asiwe mbaguzi, hapa ina maana mkalimani asiamue kupotosha ukweli wa kile kinachozungumzwa kwa kuwa tu kinaendana kinyume na itikadi yake ya kisiasa, kidini, kiutamaduni, n.k. wala asiangalie jinsia ya mtu umri au hali ya mtu anayemfanyia ukalimani.

Mambo ya kuzingatia katika Ukalimani

Kwa ujumla yapo mambo kadha wa kadha, ambayo mkalimani anatakiwa kuyazingatia anapotaka kufanya ukalimani, mambo hayo tunaweza kuyagawa katika makundi mawili, ambayo ni:

1. Kabla ya kuanza ukalimani

Katika hatua hii, mkalimani anatakiwa kuzingatia mambo yafuatayo:

(a) Awe na uelewa mzuri wa lugha zote anazotaka kukalimani, hapa tuna maana kuwa awe na uwezo wa kuzungumza na kuelewa lugha chanzi na lugha lengw, hii itasaidia mkalimani kutopotosha kile kinachozungumzwa na mzungumzaji wa lugha chanzi.

(b) Awe anaijua historia na utamaduni wa jamii zote mbili, yaani ile ya lugha chanzi na ile ya lugha lengwa.

(c) Kama ni ukalimani rasmi, ni vizuri kwa mkalimani akamjua mzungumzaji wa lugha chanzi, ni vema pia ukafanya naye mazungumzo kidogo ili kumzoea, na kutambua vionjo vyake ili iwe rahisi kwa mkalimani pindi atakapokuwa anafanya ukalimani asionekane kama mgeni.

(d) Vilevile ni muhimu kwa mtu anayekalimani, akawa na uelewa mzuri wa mada inayozungumzwa, hii itamrahisishia mkalimani katika ukalimani wake.

2. Katika ukalimani wenyewe

Mkalamani anapokuwa amesimama mbele ya hadhira [wasikilizaji] pamoja na mzungumzaji wa lugha chanzi kwa ajili ya kuanza ukalimani, anatakiwa kuzingatia mambo yafuatayo:

(a) Kuwa makini katika kusikiliza kile kinachozungumzwa na mzungumzaji wa lugha chanzi ili kuepuka kuachwa mahali na kuepuka kumuomba mzungumzaji kurudia mara kwa mara.

(b) Itambue hadhira ya lugha lengwa, ni watu wa namna gani, wana kiwango gani cha elimu, ni wasomi wa kawaida au waliobobea, ni watu wa jinsia na umri gani,? Hii itakusaidi kujua aina ya msamiati na miundo ya tungo utakayoitumia, kama iwe rahisi au migumu kutokana na hadhira yako ilivyo.

(c) Tumia mitindo unayodhani itaeleweka vema na hadhira/ wasikilizaji wa lugha lengwa, kwa mfano kama hadhira yako ni vijana, jaribu kutumia mitindo inayopendwa na vijana, kama wasikilizaji wako ni watu rasmi na we huna budi kuwa rasmi.

(d) Weka mkazo sehemu ambazo mzungumzaji wa lugha chanzi anaweka mkazo ili kuepuka utofauti yako na mzungumzaji wa lugha chanzi, na hata kuepuka kuathiri lengo la mzungumzaji wa lugha chanzi.

(e) Unatakiwa pia kutumia ishara zinazotumiwa na mzungumzaji wa lugha chanzi, hii itawafanya wasikilizaji waamini kile kinachozungumzwa na mzungumzaji wa lugha chanzi ndiyo kilekile kinachozungumzwa na mkalimani.

(f) Usiwe muda mwingi unamtazama mzungumzaji wa lugha chanzi na kusahahu kuitazama hadhira yako, hivyo unatakiwa kuitazama hadhira yako ili kugundua kama wako pamoja na wewe au kuna sehemu hawajakuelewa ili uweze kuwafafanulia zaidi.

(g) Muombe mzungumzaji wa lugha chanzi kurudia sehemu unayodhani hujaisikia au hujaielewa vizuri, kwani ni makosa kwa mkalimani kukalimani sehemu au jambo ambalo hukulisikia vizuri au kulielewa.

Hivyo basi hayo ndiyo mambo muhimu ambayo mkalimani anatakiwa kuyazingatia anapokuwa anafanya ukalimani. Jambo la kuzingatia, mkalimani hutakiwa kuingiza hisia zako unapokuwa anafanya ukalimani. na ukalimani mzuri unawezekana kwa kiwango ambacho mila na desturi zote yaani za lugha chanzi na lugha lengwa zinalingana ama kushabihiana.

Dhima za Tafsiri na Ukalimani

Tafsiri na Ukalimani ina dhima zifuatazo:

? Hutuwezesha kujifunza lugha tofauti.

Kati ya mazoezi mazuri anayoweza kutumia mtu katika kujifunza lugha nyingine, basi zoezi la kutafsiri au kukalimani mara kwa mara humsaidia mtu kujifunza lugha kwa urahisi zaidi, kwani kwa kufanya tafsiri ya mara kwa mara kutamsaidia mtu kugundua miundo na vipengele mbalimbali vya lugha na jinsi vinavyofanya kazi katika lugha anayojifunza.

? Hutumika kama njia ya mawasiliano.

Kutokana na maingiliano ya mataifa mbalimbali yanayotumia lugha tofauti tofauti, tafsiri hutumika kurahisisha mawasiliano baina ya makundi ya watu wanaotumia lugha tofauti tofauti, hutumika kutolea maelezo ya kibiashara kama vile maelekezo ya jinsi ya kutumia bidhaa mbalimbali zinazozalishwa nje au zinazouzwa nje ya nchi, katika matangazo ya kitalii ili kuwavutia watalii kutoka mataifa mbalimbali, vilevile hutumika katika vyombo vya habari, tafsiri pia inatumika katika nyaraka rasmi, mikataba, vitabu vya ziada na kiada, lakini pia ukalimani hulahisisha mawasiliano miongoni mwa watu wanaozungumza lugha tofauti.

? Tafsiri na Ukalimani hutumika kueneza utamaduni.

Tafsiri imekutanisha lugha na tamaduni mbalimbali duniani na kusababisha tamaduni na lugha hizo kuathiriana, kwa mfano mara baada ya waarabu kuingia Afrika Mashariki na vitabu mbalimbali vya Kiarabu na Kiislamu kutafsiriwa kwa lugha ya Kiswahili ilisababisha utamaduni wa Kiswahili kuathiriwa na utamaduni wa Kiarabu na Kiislamu kutoka na kuiga kwa mambo mengi kutoka huko, lakini pia hata walipokuja wazungu na kutafsiri vitabu vyao vya kifasihi, kutafsiriwa kwa Biblia, n.k. ilisababisha pia utamaduni wa Mswahili kuathiriwa na utamaduni wa Ulaya.

? Tafsiri na Ukalimani ina dhima ya kuwasilisha ujumbe wa manufaa kwa watu ambao hawafahamu lugha chanzi [lugha asilia]

Changamoto/ mapungufu katika tafsiri na Ukalimani

Mfasiri katika kazi yake ya kufasiri hukumbana na changamoto mbalimbali, ambazo huweza kusababisha tafsiri kuwa na mapungufu ya hapa na pale. Baadhi ya changamoto au mapungufu hayo ni kama vile:

(i) Tofauti za kiisimu kati ya lugha chanzi na lugha lengwa.

Tofautui za maumbo, miundo na maana kati ya lugha ya Kiswahili na lugha ya Kingereza wakati mwingine husababisha matatizo au upungufu katika tafsiri na ukalimani. Kwa mfano maumbo ya vitenzi vya Kiingereza huruhusu kauli nyingi elekezi kutoonesha umoja au wingi wa wahusika wala majina ya vitu mahususi vinavyoambatana na maelekezo yanayotolewa tofauti maumbo ya vitenzi vya Kiswahili ambavyo huonesha umoja na wingi wa wahusika na hata kuwa na majina ya vitu husika, tazama mifano ifuatayo kama ilivyotolewa na, Mwansoko [2006]

Kingereza Kiswahili

No parking ? Usiegeshe gari hapa [je kisichoruhusiwa kuegeshwa ni gari tu?]

No Smoking ? Usivute sigara[ Je ni sigara tundiyo hairuhusiwi kuvutwa?]

Arrivals ? Wanaowasili

Departures ? Wanaosafiri

Vilevile tofauti za maana kati ya lugha ya Kingereza na Kiswahili huweza kuathiri tafsiri au ukalimani, mathalani:

Kiswahili Kingereza

Wasiojiweza ? Disabled [Siyo wote wasiojiweza ni walemavu]

[na siyo walimavu wote hawajiwezi]

Wezi wa mifukoni? Pickpockets [Hawaibi kwenye mifuko, wanaiba kutoka mifukoni]

(ii) Tofauti za mitindo kati lugha chanzi na lugha lengwa

Tofauti za mitindo ya uzungumzaji pia, huweza kuathiri tafsiri na ukalimani na hii ni kwa sababu unaweza kukuta kuna mitindo fulani inaweza kutumika katika muktadha fulani lakini ikishindwa kupata tafsiri katika lugha nyingine katika muktadha ule ule.mathalani:

Kingereza: Kiswahili

(i) Thou shalt not steal [mtindo wa kidini] ? Usiibe

Do not steal [mtindo wa kawaida] ? Usiibe

(ii) Lend me your ears [mtindo wa kishairi] ? Naomba mnisikilize

May I have your attention [kawaida] ? Naomba mnisikilize

Tafsiri zote tulizoziangalia katika mfano wa (i) na (ii) zimetoa maana au taarifa ili ile iliyomo katika matini chanzi lakini tafsiri hizo hazikuzingatia mtindo wa lugha iliyotumika katika matini chanzi.

(iii) Tofauti za kitamaduni kati ya lugha chanzi na lugha lengwa

Tofauti za kiutamaduni, yaani taofauti za kimila, desturi na mazingira ya watumiaji wa lugha chanzi na lugha lengwa huweza kufanya tafsiri au ukalimani kuwa mgumu, kwa mfano, katika utamaduni wa Waingereza wana milo minne wakati Waswahili wana milo mitatu na hii hupelekea kuwa vigumu kupata dhana za milo ya hiyo ya Waingereza katika dhana ya Kiswahili. Mfano:

Waingereza wana: Waswahili wana:

Breakfast ------------------ Kifungua kinywa

Lunch …………………... Chakula cha mchana

High tea ……………………?

Dinner ……………………Chakula cha jioni

Supper …………………….?

Kwa hiyo ukiangalia mifano hiyo, utaona kuwa, high tea na supper kuzipata dhana zake katika lugha ya Kiswahili ni ngumu kutokana na kutokuwa na utamaduni wa kuwa na milo kama hiyo kwa siku. Lakini pia inakuwa vigumu kupata tafsiri ya vyakula kama vile ugali, makande katika lugha ya Kiingereza kutokana na kutokuwa na vyakula vya aina hiyo.

(iv) Tofauti za kiitikadi kati ya lugha chanzi na lugha lengwa

Tofauti za kiitikadi pia huweza kuathiri tafsiri na ukalimani, na hii ni kwa sababu, utakuta wafasiri wengi hususani waandishi wa habari kuegemea katika itikadi zaidi, kwa mfano:

Kingereza Kiswahili

Bussnessman ? mlanguzi [tafsiri hii inatokana mfasiri kuathiriwa na itikadi

ya ujamaa]

mfanyabiashara [tafsiri hii inatokana mfasiri kuathiriwa na

itikadi ya ubepari]

Freedom fighter ? wapigania uhuru [Tafsiri ya vyombo vya habari vya

Tanzania wakati wa kupigania uhuru]

Magaidi [Tafsiri ya idhaa ya BBC na Radio za Afrika

Kusini wakati huo]

Hivyo basi kwa kuhitimisha tunaweza kusema kuwa, ukalimani mzuri unawezekana kwa kiwango ambacho mila na desturi zote yaana za lugha chanzi na lugha lengwa zinalingana ama kushabihiana.

Na kutokana na umuhimu wa taaluma hii ya tafsiri na ukalimani, serikali kupitia Baraza la Kiswahili la Taifa Bakita [BAKITA] imeanzisha idara maalumu ya Tafsiri na Ukalimani, na idara hiyo ina majukumu yafuatayo:

? Kutoa huduma za tafsiri na ukalimani kwa lugha mbalimbali kwa masharika, idara, wizara, balozi na watu binafsi.

? Kuratibu na kutoa huduma za ukalimani kwenye mikutano ya kitaifa na kimataifa na katika shughuli za masharika, makampuni na watu binafsi.

? Kupitia na kuthibitisha tafsiri zilizofanywa na asasi mbalimbali au wafasiri wa nje.

? Kutoa ushauri kuhusu masula ya tafsiri na ukalimani.

MAZOEZI

? Zoezi la kwanza

Fasili matini ifuatayo kwenda lugha ya Kiingereza:

MTO

(Siku ifuatayo, asubuhi. Ngoswe na Mitomingi wako kazini. Wanafika nyumba moja).

MITOMINGI: Hodi! Hodi! Wenyewe! (Kimya, hakuna sauti itokayo). Hodi wenyewe

(Kimya) Labda hawajaamka.

NGOSWE: Kama bado wamelala tuwaache kwanza tuwarudie baadaye.

MITOMINGI: Mimi naona itakuwa shida shida kwani nyumba za hapa zimesambaa

mno.hebu nibishe tena.hodi! hodi! Wenyewe mpo?(Akinyamaza na

kunapita kimya. Punde mlango wafunguka na kipande cha

mwanamke chatokeza). Habari za asubuhi mama?

MAMA: Salama, mwaonaje?

MITOMINGI

NGOSWE Hatujambo

MAMA: Sijui niwasaidie nini akina baba?

MITOMINGI: Mwenyewe yupo sijui?

MAMA: (Akitazama chini mwenye huzuni anatingisha kichwa). Hayupo

MITOMINGI: Katoka kitambo?

MAMA: (Akimtazama Mitomingi kwa jicho kali). Ni marehemu.

MITOMINGI: (Amtazama Ngoswe ambaye kainamisha kichwa na wote wanamtazama

kwa jicho la huruma). Pole mama.

NGOSWE: Pole mama.

MAMA: Nimekwisha poa.

MITOMINGI: Samahani mama , hata sikufahamu.

MAMA: Sio neno baba sio kosa lako.

MITOMINGI: Mungu mkubwa.

MAMA: Nifanyeje; kazi ya Mungu haina dosari. (Ananyamaza kwa kitambo). Je

niwasaidie nini?

MITOMINGI: Jambo moja dogo tu. Samahani kama nitakusumbua maana kwanza ni

asubuhi tena yenyewe ni msiba,

MAMA: Sio kitu baba.

MITOMINGI: Nadhani umepata kumsikia Balozi Mitomingi.

MAMA: Nimemsikia lakini kumwona bado.

MITOMINGI: Basi mama, huyo Mitomingi, Ngengemkeni Mitomingi ndiye mimi.

MAMA: (Kwa mshangao): Karibuni ndani mpumzike

MITOMINGI: Hatukai sana mama.

MAMA: Basi ngoja niwatolee viti make. (Aingia ndani na kutoka na viti viwili

kuwapatia wageni. Yeye aketi chini).

MITOMINGI: Mama!

MAMA: Baba!

MITOMINGI: Nadhani una habari juu ya kuhesabu watu.

MAMA: (Kwa mshangao): Kuhesabu watu?

MITOMINGI: Ndiyo kuhesabu watu.

MAMA: Kuhesabu watu! (Akitingisha kichwa) Hapana.

MITOMINGI: Balozi wenu hakuwajulisha?

MAMA: Hata kidogo.

MITOMINGI: Kweli?

MAMA: Kwani Tambitambi naye mtu yule!

Pombe na yeye ni pete na chanda!

Hajali Balozi wake wala nyumba yake.

MITOMINGI: Ni sawa usemayo mama. Tambitambi yule akili hazimtoshi. Tumefika

kwake wala hajulikani aliko!

MAMA: Kama kuna wanaume mabwege yule ametia for a.

MITOMINGI: Usizidi kunambia mama, Tambitambi mambo yake hakuna

asiyeyafahamu…. Sasa mama!....

MAMA: Ndiyo baba.

MTOMINGI: Sisi kama utuonavyo tuko shughulini, shughuli hiyo si nyingine bali hiyo

niliyoisema sasa hivi kuhesabu watu. Na huyu kijana ndiye karani

mwenyewe ahusikaye. Ingekuwa bora kama wewe na wanao wote

mngetoka nje ili tufanye kazi yetu.

MAMA: Sasa baba mbona itakuwa vigumu.

MITOMINGI: Kwa vipi?

MAMA: Sasa baba utahesabu vipi?

MITOMINGI: Kwa nini?

MAMA: Kama utatuhesabu wewe basi u mchawi.

MITOMINGI: Mbona sikuelewi!

MAMA: Mchawi ndiye anayehesabu watoto wa wenzake ili awaroge. Sasa wewe

umchawi? Hata kama u mchawi siwezi kukubali utuhesabui maana

siwezi kujua nia yako ni mbaya au nzuri.

MITOMINGI: Mtu akuwaniae uovu haji kweupe.

MAMA: Sawa usemayo baba.

NGOSWE: Sasa mama hebu walete wanao na yeyote yule aliye ndani.

MAMA: Wanangu hawapo wamekwenda shamba kuwania mpunga.

NGOSWE: Wote?

MAMA: Ndiyo.

NGOSWE: Ndio kusema hakuna kiumbe hata kimoja?

MAMA; Yuko mke mwenzangu.

NGOSWE; Tuitie.(Mama anasimama kwa unyonge na kuingia ndani. Anarudi peke

yake baada ya muda mfupi). Yu wapi?

MAMA: Aja (Punde mama mwingine atokea. Yu kariby rika moja na mama wa

kwanza isipokuwa huyu mbichimbichi).

MITOMINGI: Habari mama?

NGOSWE: (Wakati huohuo) Shikamoo.

MAMA WA PILI: Nzuri (Atazama chini kwa aibu huku akiketi).

NGOSWE: (Akimtazama mama wa kwanza). Basi; hakuna mtu mwingine ndani?

MAMA WA PILI: (Akikataa kwa kichwa)

MITOMINGI: (Kwa mama wa kwanza). Lakini nyie wanawake mbona waoga sana!

Hivyo mnataka kuniambia motto wa mgongoni anaweza kwenda

kuwania mpunga? (Mama agutuka). Hebu niambie mwanao mchanga

yu wapi?

MAMA WA KWANZA: Sina mtoto mchanga.

MITOMINGI: Hivyo mama wasema kweli?

MAMA WA KWANZA: Haki vile.(Mara kwasikika sauti ya mtoto akilia ndani ya

nyumba).

MITOMINGI: Na huyo anayelia kama si mtoto ni nini/ (Mama ainuka wakawaka na

kuingia ndani kwa aibu. Muda wapiti na harudi). Mama! Njoo basi

tumalize shughuli. Usijali mambo ya motto kulia, ni jambo la kawaida.

(Mama atokea amepakata mtoto mchanga. Aketi chini na sasa uso wake

umejaa hasira na chuki)…

[Imenukuliwa kutoka, Ngoswe, Penzi Kitovu cha Uzembe. Uk 13-15]

? Zoezi la pili

1. Linganisha na linganua kati ya taaluma ya tafsiri na ukalimani.

2. (a) Tafsiri sentensi zifuatazo kwenda lugha ya Kiingereza

(i) Dua la kuku halimpati mwewe

(ii) Bandu bandu humaliza gogo

(iii) La kuvunda halina ubani

(iv) Mla vya watu naye vyake huliwa

(v) Akufaaye kwa dhiki ndiye rafiki wa kweli

(b) Ni njia gani umetumia katika tafsiri ulizotoa hapo juu, unadhani ni kwa nini?

??Zoezi la tatu

1. [a] Kwa kutumia mifano, fafanua istilahi zifuatazo:

[i] Matini chanzi

[ii] Matini lengwa

[iii] Lugha chanzi

[iv] Lugha lengwa

[b] Tafsiri sentensi zifuatazo kwenda lugha ya Kiswahili

(i) All that glister is not gold

(ii) Looser casn't be a chooser

(iii) When you make your bed you must lie on it

(iv) There is no incense for something rotting

(v) When in Rome do, do as Romans do

(b) Ni njia gani umetumia katika tafsiri hizo ulizotoa hapo juu, unadhani ni kwanini?

2. "Mfasiri au mkalimani hukabiliana na changamoto mbalimbali katika kufanikisha kazi

yake." Huku ukitumia mifano thibitisha kauli hiyo.

MAREJEO

Cartford [1995] A linguistic Theory Translation

Mwansoko, H.J.M na wenzake [2006] Kitangulizi cha Tafsiri, Nadharia na

Mbinu.TUKI.Dar-es-salaam

Newmark, P [1982] Approaches to Translation, Oxford, Pergamon Press

Newmark, P [1988] A Text book of Translation, London, Prentice Hall.

Oxford University Press Dar-es-salaam

Semzaba, E [2006] Ngoswe, Penzi Kitovu cha Uzembe. The General Booksellers LTD.

D.S.M

TUKI [2002] Kamusi ya Kiswahili Sanifu. TUKI, Dar-es-salaam

TUKI [1985] Kiswahili, Jarida la Taasisi ya Uchunguzi wa Kiswahili.

www.bakita.org.tz retrieved on Monday 04th July 2011

www.jim-mission.org.uk retrieved on Monday, 04th July 2011

www.ajol.inf retrieved on Monday, 04th July 2011

Vitabu vilivyotafsiriwa ambavyo vimetumika kama marejeo

Ayi Kwei Armah, Wema Hawajazaliwa, kimetafsiriwa na Abdilatif Abdalla

Ferdinand Oyono: House boy, Kimetafsiriwa na Raphael Khasao na Nathan Mwele.

William Shakespeare: Juliasi Kaizari: Kimetafsiria na Julius K. Nyerere

Mabepari wa Venisi: Kimetafsiriwa na Julius K. Nyerere

Hekaya za Abunuwasi: Kimetafsiriwa na Interterritorial Language Committee, East Africa

Alfu Lela Ulela: Kimetafsiriwa na Sir Richard Burton

Sir Rider Haggard: Mashimo ya Mfalme Suleiman

Monday, March 17, 2014

MWL. JAPHET MASATU AKIWA MAZINGIRA YA SALMA KIKWETE SECONDARY SCHOOL-- 17---03-- 2014

MWL. JAPHET MASATU GIVING DIRECTIONS TO STUDENTS SALMA KIKWETE SECONDARY SCHOOL. 17--03--2014

MWL. JAPHET MASATU AT WORK PLACE SALMA KIKWETE SECONDARY SCHOOL. TANZANIA 17--03---2014

MWL. JAPHET MASATU TEACHING THE STUDENTS OF SALMA KIKWETE SECONDARY SCHOOL, TANZANIA 17--03--2014

SALMA KIKWETE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT TEACHING HIS FELLOW STUDENTS 17- 3---2014.

SALMA KIKWETE SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN THE GROUP DISCUSSION

Monday, March 10, 2014

JAPHETH FROM WIKIPEDIA. THE FREE ENCYCLOPEDIA

Japheth

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Japheth (disambiguation).

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2010)

Japheth
Japheth, as depicted in Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum (c. 1553)
Born	1557 AM (date disputed)^[1]
Children	Gomer Magog Madai Javan Tubal Meshech Tiras
Parents	Noah

Japheth /ˈdʒeɪfɛθ/ (Hebrew: יָפֶֿתֿ,‎ יֶפֶֿתֿ Yapheth , Modern Hebrew: Yefet ; Greek: Ἰάφεθ Iapheth ; Latin: Iafeth or Iapetus ; Arabic: يافث‎) is one of the sons of Noah in the Abrahamic tradition. In Arabic citations, his name is normally given as Yafeth bin Nuh (Japheth son of Noah).

Order of birth

Japheth is often regarded as the youngest son, though some traditions regard him as the eldest. They are listed in the order "Shem, Ham, and Japheth" in Genesis 5:32 and 9:18, but treated in the reverse order in chapter 10.
Genesis 10:21 refers to relative ages of Japheth and his brother Shem, but with sufficient ambiguity to have given rise to different translations. The verse is translated in the KJV as follows, "Unto Shem also, the father of all the children of Eber, the brother of Japheth the elder, even to him were children born". However, the Revised Standard Version reads, "To Shem also, the father of all the children of Eber, the elder brother of Japheth, children were born." The differing interpretations depend on whether the Hebrew word ha-gadol ("the elder") is taken as grammatically referring to Japheth, or Shem.
Genesis 5:32 states that Noah had three sons when he was five hundred years old. Genesis 11:10 records that Shem was one hundred years old when his son Arphaxad was born, two years after the Flood. If Noah was six hundred years old (Genesis 7:13), then Shem was ninety-eight years old at the Flood. Ham is further implied to be the middle son in Gen. 9:24 (which says Noah realized what his "younger son" had done to him.)
The Book of Jubilees indicates in 4:33 that Shem was born in the year of the world (after creation) 1205, Ham in 1209, and Japheth in 1211.

Place in Noah's family

Main article: Sons of Noah

The world as known to the Hebrews (based on 1854 map.)

For those who take the genealogies of Genesis to be historically accurate, Japheth is commonly believed to be the father of the Europeans. The link between Japheth and the Europeans stems from Genesis 10:5, which states, "By these were the isles of the Gentiles divided in their lands." According to that book, Japheth and his two brothers formed the three major races:

Japheth is the father of the Japhetic race
Shem is the father of the Semitic race
Ham is the father of the Hamitic race

William Shakespeare's play Henry IV, Part II contains a wry comment about people who claim to be related to royal families. Prince Hal notes of such people,

...they will be kin to us, or they will fetch it from Japhet. (II.ii 117-18)

Genesis 10:5 was often interpreted to mean that the peoples of Europe were descended from Japheth. Clearly, then, any two Englishmen must have at least this one ancestor in common, and thus any individual could claim kinship with the king.

Descendants

Main article: Japhetic

Geographic identifications of Flavius Josephus, c. 100 AD; Japheth's sons shown in red

In the Bible, Japheth is ascribed seven sons: Gomer, Magog, Tiras, Javan, Meshech, Tubal, and Madai. According to Josephus (Antiquities of the Jews I.6):

"Japhet, the son of Noah, had seven sons: they inhabited so, that, beginning at the mountains Taurus and Amanus, they proceeded along Asia, as far as the river Tanais (Don), and along Europe to Cadiz; and settling themselves on the lands which they light upon, which none had inhabited before, they called the nations by their own names."

Josephus subsequently detailed the nations supposed to have descended from the seven sons of Japheth.
The "Book of Jasher", published in the 17th century, provides some new names for Japheth's grandchildren not seen in the Bible or any other source, and provided a much more detailed genealogy (see Japhetic).

In Islam

Japheth is not mentioned by name in the Qur'an but is referred to indirectly in the narrative of Noah (VII: 64, X: 73, XI: 40, XXIII: 27, XXVI: 119). Muslim exegesis, however, names all of Noah's sons, and these include Japheth.^[2] In identifying Japheth's descendants, Muslim exegesis more-or-less agrees with the Biblical traditions.^[3] He is usually regarded as the ancestor of the Gog and Magog tribes, and, at times, of the Turks and Khazars. Some traditions narrated that 36 languages of the world could be traced back to Japheth.^[4]

Ethnic legends

In the seventh century, Isidore of Seville published his noted history, in which he traces the origins of most of the nations of Europe back to Japheth.^[5] Scholars in almost every European nation continued to repeat and improve upon Saint Isidore's assertion of descent from Noah through Japheth into the nineteenth century.^[6]
Georgian nationalist historians such as Ivane Javakhishvili associated Japheth's sons with certain ancient tribes, called Tubals (Tabals, Tibarenoi in Greek) and Meshechs (Meshekhs/Mosokhs, Moschoi in Greek), who they claim represent non-Indo-European and non-Semitic, possibly "Proto-Iberian" tribes of Asia Minor of the 3rd-1st millennia BC.^[7]
In the Polish tradition of Sarmatism, the Sarmatians were said to be descended from Japheth, son of Noah, enabling the Polish nobility to imagine themselves able to trace their ancestry directly to Noah.^[6]
In Scotland, histories tracing the Scottish people to Japheth were published as late as George Chalmers' well-received Caledonia, published in 3 volumes from 1807 to 1824.^[8]

Proposed correlations with deities

In the 19th century, Biblical syncretists associated the sons of Noah with ancient pagan gods.^{[citation needed]}
Japheth has been identified by some scholars with figures from other religious systems and mythologies, including Iapetus (Japetus), the Greek Titan;^[9]^[10]^[11] the Indian figures Dyaus Pitar^{[citation needed]} and Pra-Japati^{[citation needed]}, and the Roman Iu-Pater or "Father Jove", which became Jupiter.^{[citation needed]}

Language

The term "Japhetic" was also applied by William Jones and other early linguists to what became known as the Indo-European language group. In a different sense, it was also used by the Soviet linguist Nikolai Marr in his Japhetic theory.

Literature

Japheth is a major character in the Madeleine L'Engle novel Many Waters (1986, ISBN 0 374 34796 4). He is characterized as thoughtful and intelligent, a kind-hearted young man who is on good terms with feuding family members Noah and Lamech, with the seraphim, and with visiting time travelers Sandy and Dennys Murry. Depicted in the book as Noah's younger son, Japheth is barely into adulthood, but at Noah's instigation is already married. His equally kind wife is an unusually fair-skinned woman with black hair, who may have been sired by one of the nephilim.