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AN ONLINE PLATFORM THAT PROVIDES EDUCATIONAL CONTENT,SYLLABUSES, STUDY NOTES/ MATERIALS ,PAST PAPERS, QUESTIONS & ANSWERS FOR THE STUDENTS,FORM I--VI ,RESITTERS,QT, ADULT LEARNERS, COLLEGE STUDENTS, PUPILS, TEACHERS, PARENTS,TEACHERS OF THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA AND WORLDWIDE.YOU ARE WELCOME TO SHARE YOUR KNOWLEDGE AND IDEAS.ENJOY MASATU BLOG.YOU CAN MAKE A DIFFERENCE.YOU CAN ACHIEVE EXCELLENCE. "LEARN.REVISE.DISCUSS".Anytime, Anywhere.
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Saturday, July 19, 2014
WHAT DOES POETRY MEAN ?
MEANING OF POETRY
DEFINITION OF POETRY.
Literature |
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Major forms |
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Genres |
Media |
Techniques |
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History and lists |
Discussion |
Poetry has a long history, dating back to the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh. Early poems evolved from folk songs such as the Chinese Shijing, or from a need to retell oral epics, as with the Sanskrit Vedas, Zoroastrian Gathas, and the Homeric epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Ancient attempts to define poetry, such as Aristotle's Poetics, focused on the uses of speech in rhetoric, drama, song and comedy. Later attempts concentrated on features such as repetition, verse form and rhyme, and emphasized the aesthetics which distinguish poetry from more objectively informative, prosaic forms of writing. From the mid-20th century, poetry has sometimes been more generally regarded as a fundamental creative act employing language.
Poetry uses forms and conventions to suggest differential interpretation to words, or to evoke emotive responses. Devices such as assonance, alliteration, onomatopoeia and rhythm are sometimes used to achieve musical or incantatory effects. The use of ambiguity, symbolism, irony and other stylistic elements of poetic diction often leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations. Similarly figures of speech such as metaphor, simile and metonymy[4] create a resonance between otherwise disparate images—a layering of meanings, forming connections previously not perceived. Kindred forms of resonance may exist, between individual verses, in their patterns of rhyme or rhythm.
Some poetry types are specific to particular cultures and genres and respond to characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. Readers accustomed to identifying poetry with Dante, Goethe, Mickiewicz and Rumi may think of it as written in lines based on rhyme and regular meter; there are, however, traditions, such as Biblical poetry, that use other means to create rhythm and euphony. Much modern poetry reflects a critique of poetic tradition,[5] playing with and testing, among other things, the principle of euphony itself, sometimes altogether forgoing rhyme or set rhythm.[6][7] In today's increasingly globalized world, poets often adapt forms, styles and techniques from diverse cultures and languages.
History
The oldest surviving epic poem is the Epic of Gilgamesh, from the 3rd millennium BC in Sumer (in Mesopotamia, now Iraq), which was written in cuneiform script on clay tablets and, later, papyrus.[11] Other ancient epic poetry includes the Greek epics Iliad and Odyssey, the Old Iranian books the Gathic Avesta and Yasna, the Roman national epic, Virgil's Aeneid, and the Indian epics Ramayana and Mahabharata.
The efforts of ancient thinkers to determine what makes poetry distinctive as a form, and what distinguishes good poetry from bad, resulted in "poetics"—the study of the aesthetics of poetry.[12] Some ancient poetic traditions; such as, contextually, Classical Chinese poetry in the case of the Shijing (Classic of Poetry), which records the development of poetic canons with ritual and aesthetic importance.[13] More recently, thinkers have struggled to find a definition that could encompass formal differences as great as those between Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and Matsuo Bashō's Oku no Hosomichi, as well as differences in context spanning Tanakh religious poetry, love poetry, and rap.[14]
Western traditions
Classical thinkers employed classification as a way to define and assess the quality of poetry. Notably, the existing fragments of Aristotle's Poetics describe three genres of poetry—the epic, the comic, and the tragic—and develop rules to distinguish the highest-quality poetry in each genre, based on the underlying purposes of the genre.[15] Later aestheticians identified three major genres: epic poetry, lyric poetry, and dramatic poetry, treating comedy and tragedy as subgenres of dramatic poetry.[16]Aristotle's work was influential throughout the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age,[17] as well as in Europe during the Renaissance.[18] Later poets and aestheticians often distinguished poetry from, and defined it in opposition to prose, which was generally understood as writing with a proclivity to logical explication and a linear narrative structure.[19]
This does not imply that poetry is illogical or lacks narration, but rather that poetry is an attempt to render the beautiful or sublime without the burden of engaging the logical or narrative thought process. English Romantic poet John Keats termed this escape from logic "Negative Capability".[20] This "romantic" approach views form as a key element of successful poetry because form is abstract and distinct from the underlying notional logic. This approach remained influential into the 20th century.[21]
During this period, there was also substantially more interaction among the various poetic traditions, in part due to the spread of European colonialism and the attendant rise in global trade.[22] In addition to a boom in translation, during the Romantic period numerous ancient works were rediscovered.[23]
20th-century disputes
Some 20th-century literary theorists, relying less on the opposition of prose and poetry, focused on the poet as simply one who creates using language, and poetry as what the poet creates.[24] The underlying concept of the poet as creator is not uncommon, and some modernist poets essentially do not distinguish between the creation of a poem with words, and creative acts in other media. Yet other modernists challenge the very attempt to define poetry as misguided.[25]The rejection of traditional forms and structures for poetry that began in the first half of the 20th century coincided with a questioning of the purpose and meaning of traditional definitions of poetry and of distinctions between poetry and prose, particularly given examples of poetic prose and prosaic poetry. Numerous modernist poets have written in non-traditional forms or in what traditionally would have been considered prose, although their writing was generally infused with poetic diction and often with rhythm and tone established by non-metrical means. While there was a substantial formalist reaction within the modernist schools to the breakdown of structure, this reaction focused as much on the development of new formal structures and syntheses as on the revival of older forms and structures.[26]
Recently, postmodernism has come to convey more completely prose and poetry as distinct entities, and also among genres of poetry, as having meaning only as cultural artifacts. Postmodernism goes beyond modernism's emphasis on the creative role of the poet, to emphasize the role of the reader of a text (Hermeneutics), and to highlight the complex cultural web within which a poem is read.[27] Today, throughout the world, poetry often incorporates poetic form and diction from other cultures and from the past, further confounding attempts at definition and classification that were once sensible within a tradition such as the Western canon.[28]
Elements
Prosody
Rhythm
Metrical rhythm generally involves precise arrangements of stresses or syllables into repeated patterns called feet within a line. In Modern English verse the pattern of stresses primarily differentiate feet, so rhythm based on meter in Modern English is most often founded on the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables (alone or elided).[33] In the classical languages, on the other hand, while the metrical units are similar, vowel length rather than stresses define the meter.[34] Old English poetry used a metrical pattern involving varied numbers of syllables but a fixed number of strong stresses in each line.[35]
The chief device of ancient Hebrew Biblical poetry, including many of the psalms, was parallelism, a rhetorical structure in which successive lines reflected each other in grammatical structure, sound structure, notional content, or all three. Parallelism lent itself to antiphonal or call-and-response performance, which could also be reinforced by intonation. Thus, Biblical poetry relies much less on metrical feet to create rhythm, but instead creates rhythm based on much larger sound units of lines, phrases and sentences.[36] Some classical poetry forms, such as Venpa of the Tamil language, had rigid grammars (to the point that they could be expressed as a context-free grammar) which ensured a rhythm.[37] In Chinese poetry, tones as well as stresses create rhythm. Classical Chinese poetics identifies four tones: the level tone, rising tone, departing tone, and entering tone.[38]
The formal patterns of meter used in Modern English verse to create rhythm no longer dominate contemporary English poetry. In the case of free verse, rhythm is often organized based on looser units of cadence rather than a regular meter. Robinson Jeffers, Marianne Moore, and William Carlos Williams are three notable poets who reject the idea that regular accentual meter is critical to English poetry.[39] Jeffers experimented with sprung rhythm as an alternative to accentual rhythm.[40]
Meter
- iamb – one unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable (e.g. describe, Include, retract)
- trochee – one stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable (e.g. picture, flower)
- dactyl – one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables (e.g.annotate an-no-tate)
- anapest – two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed syllable (e.g. comprehend com-pre-hend)
- spondee – two stressed syllables together (e.g. e-nough)
- pyrrhic – two unstressed syllables together (rare, usually used to end dactylic hexameter)
Each of these types of feet has a certain "feel," whether alone or in combination with other feet. The iamb, for example, is the most natural form of rhythm in the English language, and generally produces a subtle but stable verse.[47] Scanning meter can often show the basic or fundamental pattern underlying a verse, but does not show the varying degrees of stress, as well as the differing pitches and lengths of syllables.[48]
Metrical patterns
Some common metrical patterns, with notable examples of poets and poems who use them, include:
- Iambic pentameter (John Milton in Paradise Lost, William Shakespeare in his Sonnets)[53]
- Dactylic hexameter (Homer, Iliad; Virgil, Aeneid)[54]
- Iambic tetrameter (Andrew Marvell, "To His Coy Mistress"; Aleksandr Pushkin, Eugene Onegin, Robert Frost, Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening)[55]
- Trochaic octameter (Edgar Allan Poe, "The Raven")[56]
- Alexandrine (Jean Racine, Phèdre)[57]
Rhyme, alliteration, assonance
Rhyme consists of identical ("hard-rhyme") or similar ("soft-rhyme") sounds placed at the ends of lines or at predictable locations within lines ("internal rhyme"). Languages vary in the richness of their rhyming structures; Italian, for example, has a rich rhyming structure permitting maintenance of a limited set of rhymes throughout a lengthy poem. The richness results from word endings that follow regular forms. English, with its irregular word endings adopted from other languages, is less rich in rhyme.[60] The degree of richness of a language's rhyming structures plays a substantial role in determining what poetic forms are commonly used in that language.[61]
Alliteration is the repetition of letters or letter-sounds at the beginning of two or more words immediately succeeding each other, or at short intervals; or the recurrence of the same letter in accented parts of words. Alliteration and assonance played a key role in structuring early Germanic, Norse and Old English forms of poetry. The alliterative patterns of early Germanic poetry interweave meter and alliteration as a key part of their structure, so that the metrical pattern determines when the listener expects instances of alliteration to occur. This can be compared to an ornamental use of alliteration in most Modern European poetry, where alliterative patterns are not formal or carried through full stanzas. Alliteration is particularly useful in languages with less rich rhyming structures. Assonance, where the use of similar vowel sounds within a word rather than similar sounds at the beginning or end of a word, was widely used in skaldic poetry, but goes back to the Homeric epic.[62] Because verbs carry much of the pitch in the English language, assonance can loosely evoke the tonal elements of Chinese poetry and so is useful in translating Chinese poetry.[63] Consonance occurs where a consonant sound is repeated throughout a sentence without putting the sound only at the front of a word. Consonance provokes a more subtle effect than alliteration and so is less useful as a structural element.[61]
Rhyming schemes
Most rhyme schemes are described using letters that correspond to sets of rhymes, so if the first, second and fourth lines of a quatrain rhyme with each other and the third line does not rhyme, the quatrain is said to have an "a-a-b-a" rhyme scheme. This rhyme scheme is the one used, for example, in the rubaiyat form.[68] Similarly, an "a-b-b-a" quatrain (what is known as "enclosed rhyme") is used in such forms as the Petrarchan sonnet.[69] Some types of more complicated rhyming schemes have developed names of their own, separate from the "a-b-c" convention, such as the ottava rima and terza rima.[70] The types and use of differing rhyming schemes is discussed further in the main article.
Form
Poetic form is more flexible in modernist and post-modernist poetry, and continues to be less structured than in previous literary eras. Many modern poets eschew recognisable structures or forms, and write in free verse. But poetry remains distinguished from prose by its form; some regard for basic formal structures of poetry will be found in even the best free verse, however much such structures may appear to have been ignored.[71] Similarly, in the best poetry written in classic styles there will be departures from strict form for emphasis or effect.[72]Among major structural elements used in poetry are the line, the stanza or verse paragraph, and larger combinations of stanzas or lines such as cantos. Also sometimes used are broader visual presentations of words and calligraphy. These basic units of poetic form are often combined into larger structures, called poetic forms or poetic modes (see following section), as in the sonnet or haiku.
Lines and stanzas
Poetry is often separated into lines on a page. These lines may be based on the number of metrical feet, or may emphasize a rhyming pattern at the ends of lines. Lines may serve other functions, particularly where the poem is not written in a formal metrical pattern. Lines can separate, compare or contrast thoughts expressed in different units, or can highlight a change in tone.[73] See the article on line breaks for information about the division between lines.Lines of poems are often organized into stanzas, which are denominated by the number of lines included. Thus a collection of two lines is a couplet (or distich), three lines a triplet (or tercet), four lines a quatrain, and so on. These lines may or may not relate to each other by rhyme or rhythm. For example, a couplet may be two lines with identical meters which rhyme or two lines held together by a common meter alone.[74]
In many forms of poetry, stanzas are interlocking, so that the rhyming scheme or other structural elements of one stanza determine those of succeeding stanzas. Examples of such interlocking stanzas include, for example, the ghazal and the villanelle, where a refrain (or, in the case of the villanelle, refrains) is established in the first stanza which then repeats in subsequent stanzas. Related to the use of interlocking stanzas is their use to separate thematic parts of a poem. For example, the strophe, antistrophe and epode of the ode form are often separated into one or more stanzas.[77]
In some cases, particularly lengthier formal poetry such as some forms of epic poetry, stanzas themselves are constructed according to strict rules and then combined. In skaldic poetry, the dróttkvætt stanza had eight lines, each having three "lifts" produced with alliteration or assonance. In addition to two or three alliterations, the odd numbered lines had partial rhyme of consonants with dissimilar vowels, not necessarily at the beginning of the word; the even lines contained internal rhyme in set syllables (not necessarily at the end of the word). Each half-line had exactly six syllables, and each line ended in a trochee. The arrangement of dróttkvætts followed far less rigid rules than the construction of the individual dróttkvætts.[78]
Visual presentation
With the advent of printing, poets gained greater control over the mass-produced visual presentations of their work. Visual elements have become an important part of the poet's toolbox, and many poets have sought to use visual presentation for a wide range of purposes. Some Modernist poets have made the placement of individual lines or groups of lines on the page an integral part of the poem's composition. At times, this complements the poem's rhythm through visual caesuras of various lengths, or creates juxtapositions so as to accentuate meaning, ambiguity or irony, or simply to create an aesthetically pleasing form. In its most extreme form, this can lead to concrete poetry or asemic writing.[81][82]
Diction
Poetic diction can include rhetorical devices such as simile and metaphor, as well as tones of voice, such as irony. Aristotle wrote in the Poetics that "the greatest thing by far is to be a master of metaphor."[88] Since the rise of Modernism, some poets have opted for a poetic diction that de-emphasizes rhetorical devices, attempting instead the direct presentation of things and experiences and the exploration of tone.[89] On the other hand, Surrealists have pushed rhetorical devices to their limits, making frequent use of catachresis.[90]
Allegorical stories are central to the poetic diction of many cultures, and were prominent in the West during classical times, the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Aesop's Fables, repeatedly rendered in both verse and prose since first being recorded about 500 B.C., are perhaps the richest single source of allegorical poetry through the ages.[91] Other notables examples include the Roman de la Rose, a 13th-century French poem, William Langland's Piers Ploughman in the 14th century, and Jean de la Fontaine's Fables (influenced by Aesop's) in the 17th century. Rather than being fully allegorical, however, a poem may contain symbols or allusions that deepen the meaning or effect of its words without constructing a full allegory.[92]
Another strong element of poetic diction can be the use of vivid imagery for effect. The juxtaposition of unexpected or impossible images is, for example, a particularly strong element in surrealist poetry and haiku.[93] Vivid images are often endowed with symbolism or metaphor. Many poetic dictions use repetitive phrases for effect, either a short phrase (such as Homer's "rosy-fingered dawn" or "the wine-dark sea") or a longer refrain. Such repetition can add a sombre tone to a poem, or can be laced with irony as the context of the words changes.[94]
Forms
Sonnet
Sonnets are particularly associated with love poetry, and often use a poetic diction heavily based on vivid imagery, but the twists and turns associated with the move from octave to sestet and to final couplet make them a useful and dynamic form for many subjects.[99] Shakespeare's sonnets are among the most famous in English poetry, with 20 being included in the Oxford Book of English Verse.[100]
Shi
Villanelle
Tanka
Haiku
- 富士の風や扇にのせて江戸土産
- fuji no kaze ya oogi ni nosete Edo miyage
- the wind of Mt. Fuji
- I've brought on my fan!
- a gift from Edo
Ode
Ghazal
As with other forms with a long history in many languages, many variations have been developed, including forms with a quasi-musical poetic diction in Urdu.[121] Ghazals have a classical affinity with Sufism, and a number of major Sufi religious works are written in ghazal form. The relatively steady meter and the use of the refrain produce an incantatory effect, which complements Sufi mystical themes well.[122] Among the masters of the form is Rumi, a 13th-century Persian poet.[123]
Genres
In addition to specific forms of poems, poetry is often thought of in terms of different genres and subgenres. A poetic genre is generally a tradition or classification of poetry based on the subject matter, style, or other broader literary characteristics.[124] Some commentators view genres as natural forms of literature. Others view the study of genres as the study of how different works relate and refer to other works.[125]Narrative poetry
Notable narrative poets have included Ovid, Dante, Juan Ruiz, Chaucer, William Langland, Luís de Camões, Shakespeare, Alexander Pope, Robert Burns, Fernando de Rojas, Adam Mickiewicz, Alexander Pushkin, Edgar Allan Poe and Alfred Tennyson.
Epic poetry
Dramatic poetry
Satirical poetry
Poetry can be a powerful vehicle for satire. The Romans had a strong tradition of satirical poetry, often written for political purposes. A notable example is the Roman poet Juvenal's satires.[131]The same is true of the English satirical tradition. John Dryden (a Tory), the first Poet Laureate, produced in 1682 Mac Flecknoe, subtitled "A Satire on the True Blue Protestant Poet, T.S." (a reference to Thomas Shadwell).[132] Another master of 17th-century English satirical poetry was John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester.[133] Satirical poets outside England include Poland's Ignacy Krasicki, Azerbaijan's Sabir and Portugal's Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage.
Light poetry
While light poetry is sometimes condemned as doggerel, or thought of as poetry composed casually, humor often makes a serious point in a subtle or subversive way. Many of the most renowned "serious" poets have also excelled at light verse. Notable writers of light poetry include Lewis Carroll, Ogden Nash, X. J. Kennedy, Willard R. Espy, and Wendy Cope.
Lyric poetry
Elegy
Notable practitioners of elegiac poetry have included Propertius, Jorge Manrique, Jan Kochanowski, Chidiock Tichborne, Edmund Spenser, Ben Jonson, John Milton, Thomas Gray, Charlotte Turner Smith, William Cullen Bryant, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Evgeny Baratynsky, Alfred Tennyson, Walt Whitman, Louis Gallet, Antonio Machado, Juan Ramón Jiménez, William Butler Yeats, Rainer Maria Rilke, and Virginia Woolf.
Verse fable
Notable verse fabulists have included Aesop, Vishnu Sarma, Phaedrus, Marie de France, Robert Henryson, Biernat of Lublin, Jean de La Fontaine, Ignacy Krasicki, Félix María de Samaniego, Tomás de Iriarte, Ivan Krylov and Ambrose Bierce.
Prose poetry
Speculative poetry
Speculative poetry, also known as fantastic poetry, (of which weird or macabre poetry is a major subclassification), is a poetic genre which deals thematically with subjects which are 'beyond reality', whether via extrapolation as in science fiction or via weird and horrific themes as in horror fiction. Such poetry appears regularly in modern science fiction and horror fiction magazines. Edgar Allan Poe is sometimes seen as the "father of speculative poetry".[141]See also
Notes
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- Ahl, Frederick; Roisman, Hannah M (1996). The Odyssey Re-Formed. Cornell University Press. pp. 1–26. ISBN 0-8014-8335-2.. Others suggest that poetry did not necessarily predate writing. Goody, Jack (1987). The Interface Between the Written and the Oral. Cambridge University Press. p. 98. ISBN 0-521-33794-1.
- Ebrey, Patricia (1993). Chinese Civilisation: A Sourcebook (2nd ed.). The Free Press. pp. 11–13. ISBN 978-0-02-908752-7.
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- Kant, Immanuel; Bernard, JH (trans.) (1914). Critique of Judgment. Macmillan. p. 131. Kant argues that the nature of poetry as a self-consciously abstract and beautiful form raises it to the highest level among the verbal arts, with tone or music following it, and only after that the more logical and narrative prose.
- Ou, Li (2009). Keats and negative capability. Continuum. pp. 1–3. ISBN 978-1-4411-4724-0.
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- Abu-Mahfouz, Ahmad (2008). "Translation as a Blending of Cultures". Journal of Translation 4 (1).
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- Johnson, Jeannine (2007). Why write poetry?: modern poets defending their art. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 148. ISBN 978-0-8386-4105-7.
- Jenkins, Lee M; Davis, Alex, ed. (2007). The Cambridge companion to modernist poetry. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–7, 38, 156. ISBN 978-0-521-61815-1.
- Barthes, Roland (1978). "Death of the Author". Image-Music-Text. Farrar, Straus & Giroux. pp. 142–148.
- Connor, Steven (1997). Postmodernist culture: an introduction to theories of the contemporary (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 123–128. ISBN 978-0-631-20052-9.
- Pinsky 1998, p. 52
- Fussell 1965, pp. 20–21
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- Yip, Moira (2002). Tone. Cambridge textbooks in linguistics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–4, 130. ISBN 0-521-77314-8.
- Fussell 1965, p. 12
- Jorgens, Elise Bickford (1982). The well-tun'd word : musical interpretations of English poetry, 1597–1651. University of Minnesota Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-8166-1029-7.
- Fussell 1965, pp. 75–76
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- Bala Sundara Raman, L; Ishwar, S; Kumar Ravindranath, Sanjeeth (2003). "Context Free Grammar for Natural Language Constructs: An implementation for Venpa Class of Tamil Poetry". Tamil Internet: 128–136.
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- Hartman, Charles O (1980). Free Verse An Essay on Prosody. Northwestern University Press. pp. 24, 44, 47. ISBN 978-0-8101-1316-9.
- Hollander 1981, p. 22
- Corn 1997, p. 24
- Corn 1997, pp. 25, 34
- Annis, William S (January 2006). "Introduction to Greek Meter". Aoidoi. pp. 1–15.
- "Examples of English metrical systems". Fondazione Universitaria in provincia di Belluno. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
- Fussell 1965, pp. 23–24
- Kiparsky, Paul (September 1975). "Stress, Syntax, and Meter". Language 51 (3): 576–616. doi:10.2307/412889.
- Thompson, John (1961). The Founding of English Meter. Columbia University Press. p. 36.
- Pinsky 1998, pp. 11–24
- Pinsky 1998, p. 66
- Nabokov, Vladimir (1964). Notes on Prosody. Bollingen Foundation. pp. 9–13. ISBN 0-691-01760-3.
- Fussell 1965, pp. 36–71
- Nabokov, Vladimir (1964). Notes on Prosody. Bollingen Foundation. pp. 46–47. ISBN 0-691-01760-3.
- Adams 1997, p. 206
- Adams 1997, p. 63
- "What is Tetrameter?". tetrameter.com. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
- Adams 1997, p. 60
- James, ED; Jondorf, G (1994). Racine: Phèdre. Cambridge University Press. pp. 32–34. ISBN 978-0-521-39721-6.
- Corn 1997, p. 65
- Osberg, Richard H (2001). "'I kan nat geeste': Chaucer's Artful Alliteration". In Gaylord, Alan T. Essays on the art of Chaucer's verse. Routledge. pp. 195–228. ISBN 978-0-8153-2951-0.
- Alighieri, Dante; Pinsky Robert (trans.) (1994). "Introduction". The Inferno of Dante: A New Verse Translation. Farrar, Straus & Giroux. ISBN 0-374-17674-4.
- Kiparsky, Paul (Summer 1973). "The Role of Linguistics in a Theory of Poetry". Daedalus 102 (3): 231–244.
- Russom, Geoffrey (1998). Beowulf and old Germanic metre. Cambridge University Press. pp. 64–86. ISBN 978-0-521-59340-3.
- Liu, James JY (1990). Art of Chinese Poetry. University Of Chicago Press. pp. 21–22. ISBN 978-0-226-48687-1.
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- Bibliography
- Adams, Stephen J (1997). Poetic designs: an introduction to meters, verse forms and figures of speech. Broadview. ISBN 978-1-55111-129-2.
- Corn, Alfred (1997). The Poem's Heartbeat: A Manual of Prosody. Storyline Press. ISBN 1-885266-40-5.
- Fussell, Paul (1965). Poetic Meter and Poetic Form. Random House.
- Hollander, John (1981). Rhyme's Reason. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-02740-0.
- Pinsky, Robert (1998). The Sounds of Poetry. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 0-374-26695-6.
Further reading
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Poetry |
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Wikisource has original works on the topic: Poetry |
Look up poetry in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
- Brooks, Cleanth (1947). The Well Wrought Urn: Studies in the Structure of Poetry. Harcourt Brace & Company.
- Finch, Annie (2011). A Poet's Ear: A Handbook of Meter and Form. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-05066-6.
- Fry, Stephen (2007). The Ode Less Travelled: Unlocking the Poet Within. Arrow Books. ISBN 978-0-09-950934-9.
- Pound, Ezra (1951). ABC of Reading. Faber.
- Preminger, Alex; Brogan, Terry VF; Warnke, Frank J (ed.). The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics (3rd ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-02123-6.
- Iturat, Isidro (2010). Poetics. Indrisos.com.
Anthologies
- Ferguson, Margaret; Salter, Mary Jo; Stallworthy, Jon, ed. (1996). The Norton Anthology of Poetry (4th ed.). W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-96820-0.
- Gardner, Helen, ed. (1972). New Oxford Book of English Verse 1250–1950. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-812136-9.
- Larkin, Philip, ed. (1973). The Oxford Book of Twentieth Century English Verse. Oxford University Press.
- Yeats, WB, ed. (1936). Oxford Book of Modern Verse 1892–1935. Oxford University Press.
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